Identifying Community Problems

Learn how to analyze community problems to better understand root causes and plan effective interventions:

• COMMUNITIES HAVE PROBLEMS, JUST LIKE PEOPLE

• WHAT IS A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

• WHAT IS ANALYZING COMMUNITY PROBLEMS ALL ABOUT?

• WHY SHOULD I ANALYZE A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

• HOW SHOULD I ANALYZE A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

• WHEN SHOULD I ANALYZE A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

• GOING BEYOND THE BASICS -- DOES ANALYSIS REALLY WORK?

COMMUNITIES HAVE PROBLEMS, JUST LIKE PEOPLE

Problems are part of life -- they go together with being alive. And every community has problems, too; they go together with being a community. That's just a fact of community life.

Two more basic facts:

• Communities, like people, try to solve their problems.
• And analyzing those problems helps in their solution.

Example, A community problem. The downtown area of a community is declining. Stores are closing, and moving out; no new stores are moving in. We want to revitalize that downtown. How should we do it?

Our thinking here is simple:

• We'd be better off analyzing why that decline is taking place, why the problem is occurring, rather than simply jumping in and trying to fix it.
• A good analysis will lead to better long-run solutions. And therefore:
• A good analysis is worth taking the time to do.

So this section explains what analyzing community problems is about, and why it can be helpful -- and then how to do it.

WHAT IS A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

This covers a lot of ground. There's a long list of nominees. And you probably know some of the main contenders. Can you name the leading problems in your own community? Chances are you can at least start the list.

Below are examples of community problems:

Example Community Problems: Adolescent pregnancy, access to clean drinking water, child abuse and neglect, crime, domestic violence, drug use, environmental contamination, ethnic conflict, health disparities, HIV/ AIDS, hunger, inadequate emergency services, inequality, jobs, lack of affordable housing, poverty, racism, transportation, violence.

WHAT OTHERS WOULD YOU ADD?

Rather than aim for a complete problem list, here are some criteria you may consider when identifying community problems:

• The problem occurs too frequently (frequency)
• The problem has lasted for a while (duration)
• The problem affects many people (scope, or range)
• The problem is disrupting to personal or community life, and possibly intense (severity)
• The problem deprives people of legal or moral rights (equity)
• The issue is perceived as a problem (perception)

This last criterion -- perception -- is an important one, and can also help indicate readiness for addressing the issue within the community.

Keep in mind that what is seen as a problem can vary from place to place, and from group to group in the same place. Although there's no official definition of a community problem, the above examples and criteria above should help you begin to name and analyze community problems.

WHAT IS ANALYZING COMMUNITY PROBLEMS ALL ABOUT?

Analyzing community problems is a way of thinking carefully about a problem or issue before acting on a solution. It first involves identifying reasons a problem exists, and then (and only then) identifying possible solutions and a plan for improvement. The techniques for analyzing community problems require simple logic, and sometimes the collection of evidence.

WHY SHOULD I ANALYZE A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

To better identify what the problem or issue is.

Kids gather on a street. Sometimes they drink; sometimes they get rowdy. What is the problem here? The drinking? The rowdiness? The gathering itself? Or, the possible fact that kids have nowhere else to go and few positive alternatives for engagement? Before looking for solutions, you would want to clarify just what is the problem (or problems) here. Unless you are clear, it's hard to move forward.

To understand what is at the heart of a problem.

A problem is usually caused by something; what is that something? We should find out. And often the problem we see is a symptom of something else.

To determine the barriers and resources associated with addressing the problem.

It's good practice and planning to anticipate barriers and obstacles before they might rise up. By doing so, you can get around them. Analyzing community problems can also help you understand the resources you need. And the better equipped you are with the right resources, the greater your chances of success.

To develop the best action steps for addressing the problem.

Having a plan of action is always better than taking a few random shots at the problem. If you know where you are going, you are more likely to get there.

In general, when you tackle a problem, it's almost always smarter to analyze it before you begin. That way, you've got a deeper understanding of the problem; and you've covered your bases. There's nothing worse for member involvement and morale than starting to work on a problem, and running up against lots of obstacles -- especially when they are avoidable.

When you take a little time to examine a problem first, you can anticipate some of these obstacles before they come up, and give yourself and your members better odds of coming up with a successful solution.

WHEN SHOULD I ANALYZE A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

Every community problem should benefit from analysis. The only possible exception is when the problem is an immediate crisis that requires action this very moment. And even then, analysis should help later.

However, there are conditions when analysis is especially important. And these are:

• When the community problem is not defined very clearly
• When little is known about the community problem, or its possible consequences
• When you want to find causes that may improve the chance of successfully addressing the problem
• When people are jumping to solutions much too soon
• When you need to identify actions to address the problem, and find collaborative partners for taking action.

HOW SHOULD I ANALYZE A COMMUNITY PROBLEM?

The ultimate goal is - to understand the problem better and to deal with it more effectively, so the method you choose should accomplish that goal. We'll offer some step-by-step guidelines here and go over a couple of specific ways to determine the causes of the problem.

1. Justify the choice of the problem.

Apply the criteria we’ve listed above – frequency, duration, range, severity, equity, perception – as well as asking yourself whether your organization or another can address it effectively, in order to decide whether the problem is one that you should focus on.

Let’s take the problem we used as an example earlier: The percentage of overweight and obese children in the community has been steadily increasing, and now approaches 25%. Since we know that childhood obesity tends to lead to adult obesity, and that obesity and being overweight are linked to chronic conditions – diabetes, heart disease, stroke – this is a problem that needs to be addressed now. Our organization has the will and the ability to do it.

2. Frame the problem.

State the problem without implying a solution or blaming anyone, so that you can analyze it without any assumptions and build consensus around whatever solution you arrive at.  One way is to state it in terms of a lack of a positive behavior, condition, or other factor, or  the presence or size of a negative behavior, condition, or other factor.

There are too many children in the community who are overweight or obese. The problem is particularly serious among low-income families.

3. Identify whose behavior and/or what and how environmental factors need to change for the problem to begin to be solved.

This can be as straightforward as individuals changing their behavior from smoking to not smoking, or as complex as persuading legislators to change laws and policies (e.g., non-smoking ordinances) in order to change others’ behavior (smokers don’t smoke in buildings or enclosed spaces used by the public) in order to benefit yet another group by changing the environment (children are protected from secondhand smoke in public.)

All, and particularly low-income, children should have the opportunity and the motivation to eat more healthily and exercise more. Parents may need to change their children’s – and perhaps their own – diets, and schools may need to adjust their lunch programs and exercise schedules. In low-income neighborhoods, there needs to be greater access to healthy food and more safe places for children to play or participate in sports, both outdoors and indoors.

4. Analyze the root causes of the problem.

The real cause of a problem may not be immediately apparent.  It may be a function of a social or political system, or may be rooted in a behavior or situation that may at first glance seem unrelated to it. In order to find the underlying cause, you may have to use one or more analytical methods, including critical thinkingand the “But Why?” technique.

Very briefly, the latter consists of stating the problem as you perceive it and asking “But why?” The next step is to answer that question as well as you can and then asking again, “But why?” By continuing this process until you get an answer that can’t be reduced further, you can often get to the underlying cause of the problem, which will tell you where to direct your efforts to solve it.

The difference between recognizing a problem and finding its root cause is similar to the difference between a doctor’s treating the symptoms of a disease and actually curing the disease. Once a disease is understood well enough to cure, it is often also understood well enough to prevent or eliminate. Similarly, once you understand the root causes of a community problem, you may be able not only to solve it, but to establish systems or policies that prevent its return.

There are too many children in the community who are overweight or obese. The problem is particularly serious among low-income families. (But why?)

Because many low-income children don’t eat a healthy diet and don’t exercise enough. (But why?)

Because their parents, in many cases, don’t have the knowledge of what a healthy diet consists of, and because, even if they did, they lack access in their neighborhoods to healthy foods – no supermarkets, produce markets, farmers’ markets, or restaurants serving healthy food – and therefore shop at convenience stores and eat out at fast food places. Kids don’t play outside because it’s too dangerous – gang activity and drug dealing make the street no place for children. (But why?)

Parents may never have been exposed to information about healthy food – they simply don’t have the knowledge. Market owners view low-income neighborhoods as unprofitable and dangerous places to do business. The streets are dangerous because there are few job opportunities in the community, and young men turn to making money in any way possible.

By this point, you should have a fair understanding of why kids don’t eat healthily or get enough exercise. As you continue to question, you may begin to think about advocacy with local officials for incentives to bring supermarkets to low-income neighborhoods, or for after-school programs that involve physical exercise, or for parent nutrition education or for anti-gang programs…or for all of these and other efforts besides. Or continued questioning may reveal deeper causes that you feel your organization can tackle.

5. Identify the restraining and driving forces that affect the problem.

This is called a force field analysis. It means looking at the restraining forces that act to keep the problem from changing (social structures, cultural traditions, ideology, politics, lack of knowledge, lack of access to healthy conditions, etc.) and the driving forces that push it toward change (dissatisfaction with the way things are, public opinion, policy change, ongoing public education efforts, existing alternatives to unhealthy or unacceptable activity or conditions, etc.) Consider how you can use your understanding of these forces in devising solutions to the problem.

Forces restraining change here include:

• The desirability and availability of junk food – kids like it because it tastes good (we’re programmed as a species to like fat, salt, and sugar), and you can get it on every corner in practically any neighborhood.
• The reluctance of supermarket chains to open stores in low-income neighborhoods.
• The domination of the streets by gangs and drug dealers.

Some forces driving change might be:

• Parents’ concern about their children’s weight.
• Children’s desire to participate in sports or simply to be outdoors.
• Media stories about the problem of childhood obesity and its consequences for children, both now and in their later lives.

A full force field analysis probably would include many more forces in each category.

6. Find any relationships that exist among the problem you’re concerned with and others in the community.

In analyzing root causes, you may have already completed this step. It may be that other problems stem from the same root cause, and that there are other organizations with whom you could partner. Understanding the relationships among community issues can be an important step toward resolving them.

We’ve already seen connections to lack of education, unemployment, lack of after-school programs, and gang violence and crime, among other issues. Other organizations may be working on one or more of these, and a collaboration might help both of you to reach your goals.

7. Identify personal factors that may contribute to the problem.

Whether the problem involves individual behavior or community conditions, each individual affected by it brings a whole collection of knowledge (some perhaps accurate, some perhaps not), beliefs, skills, education, background, experience, culture, and assumptions about the world and others, as well as biological and genetic traits. Any or all of these might contribute to the problem or to its solution…or both.

A few examples:

• Genetic predisposition for diabetes and other conditions.
• Lack of knowledge about healthy nutrition.
• Lack of knowledge/ skills for preparing healthy foods.

8. Identify environmental factors that may contribute to the problem.

Just as there are factors relating to individuals that may contribute to or help to solve the problem you’re concerned with, there are also factors within the community environment that may do the same. These might include the availability or lack of services, information, and other support; the degree of accessibility and barriers to, and opportunities for services, information, and other support; the social, financial, and other costs and benefits of change; and such overarching factors as poverty, living conditions, official policy, and economic conditions.

Sample environmental factors:

• Poverty
• Lack of employment and hope for young men in low-income neighborhoods
• Lack of availability of healthy food in low-income neighborhoods
• General availability – at school as well as elsewhere – of snack foods high in salt, sugar, and fat
• Constant media bombardment of advertising of unhealthy snacks, drinks, and fast food

9. Identify targets and agents of change for addressing the problem.

Whom should you focus your efforts on, and who has the power to improve the situation?  Often, these may be the same people. The best solution to a particular problem may be policy change of some sort, for instance, and the best route to that may be to mount an advocacy effort aimed at officials who can make it happen. People who are suffering from lack of skills or services may be the ones who can do the most to change their situation. In other cases, your targets may be people whose behavior or circumstances need to change, and you may want to recruit agents of change to work with you in your effort. The point of this step is to understand where and how to direct your work most effectively.

Targets of change might include:

Parents of children in low-income neighborhoods (or all parents in the community) for education purposes

The children themselves

Elementary and middle school teachers

School officials responsible for school food programs

Executives and Public Relations officers of supermarket chains

Gang members and youth at risk of becoming gang members

A short list of potential agents of change:

Parents of children in low-income neighborhoods (or all parents in the community) as controllers of their children’s diets

The Superintendent of Schools, School Committee, and school administrators, as well as those directly responsible for school food programs

Local public officials who could create incentives for markets to move into underserved neighborhoods

Community Recreation Commissions, school officials, YMCAs, and other entities that might create safe outdoor and indoor physical activity programs for children

Community hospitals, clinics, and private medical practices

Public relations offices of national or regional fast food restaurant chains

With your analysis complete, you can develop a strategic plan that speaks to the real causes of the problem and focuses on those targets and/or agents of change that are most likely to contribute to improving the situation.

GOING BEYOND THE BASICS -- DOES ANALYSIS REALLY WORK?

Try this analysis out with a current problem in your own community setting.

What do you conclude? We hope you'll find some value in analysis. We do know that when we have tried this method with real problems in our own communities, we have drawn some additional conclusions of our own, going beyond the basics:

• Analyzing community problems can be hard work. It takes real mental effort. We're not used to sitting down and thinking deeply about a problem. (We're too busy!)
• Real community problems are likely to be complex. Economic development may depend on the global economy, a force you can't have much effect on. You may have opposition, either from within the community itself, or from powerful forces trying to protect their own interests.
• When you go looking for reasons and underlying causes for significant problems, you are likely to find more than one. Several different reasons may be influencing the problem, in different amounts, all at the same time. It may not be an easy task to untangle all the reasons and their relative strengths, but it may be necessary in order to reach a solution.
• The problem may not only have more than one reason; it may have more than one solution too. Problems often call for multi-pronged solutions. That is, difficult problems often must be approached from more than one direction. So in revitalizing the downtown, you might want to (a) beautify the streets; (b) expand the staff of the chamber of commerce; (c) run sidewalk sales; (d) look for outside loans; and (e) recruit new businesses. These are all parts of the solution. Many different types of actions might be necessary for revitalization.

When analyzing real community problems, the analysis may show multiple reasons behind the problem. The analysis may not always be easy. The solution may be more difficult still.

But that's why problems are problems. Community problems exist precisely because they often resist clear analysis and solution. They persist despite our efforts. They can be real challenges.

Yet this doesn't mean we are helpless. Analysis, including the analytic methods we have described, can take you a long way. With good analysis, some resources, and enough determination, we believe even the most troublesome problems can be addressed, and ultimately, solved.

Online Resources

Addressing Community Gang Problems: A Practical Guide by Bureau of Justice Assistance Is a useful resource that provides a prototype to assist communities in identifying, analyzing, and responding to gang-related problems as well as assessing the effectiveness of their responses.

Assessment Primer: Analyzing the Community, Identifying Problems and Setting Goals is provided by the Community Anti-Drug Coalitions of America and the National Community Anti-Drug Coalition Institute. This helpful primer is designed to provide clear guidelines for anti-drug coalitions in defining their communities and assessing the real needs within them.

Framing the Issue, by Trudy Rice, Cheryl Burkhart-Kriesel and Karla Trautman, is a useful resource that explains how to analyze community problems and access community data. It includes a detailed step-by-step presentation.

Development Journalism

DEVELOPMENT JOURNALISM

Development journalism basically centres around how much freedom the media should have i.e. should they be able to publish whatever they wish to publish, at any time, or should there be controls and limits on this? In particular, how should they treat the government of the country? And, looking even more closely, how should they treat the government of a developing country? In such a case the government may have a difficult development task to do, because of poverty and a shortage of different resources. Thus the support of the media may be important to them in performing this task. Several theories have strongly influenced the way the press in Africa has responded to questions like the above. We are going to look at the three theories that have dominated the press in Africa:

• Authoritarianism 

• Social responsibility 

• libertarian theory 

And look briefly at the Development theory and how this has impacted on the other three. Then look at advantages and disadvantages of developmental journalism for the media. 

The Authoritarian Theory 

This has always been popular with colonial governments in Africa, also true in South Africa where it could be argued that the old Nationalist government did its best to put the authoritarian theory into practice. This theory says: The media are in the service of the state and therefore subordinate to them. I.e. they should do nothing that could undermine established authority. Rather the media must support the interests of the state at all costs. Because the authoritarian view holds that the state is more important than the individual, it also says that the individual can only achieve his/her goals if he/she is under the state. However, different individuals within an authoritarian state have different status/importance. E.g. the leader of an authoritarian state may be one person or an elite group who dominate the society. This kind of leadership uses the mass media to help them dominate the rest of society, i.e. The media are used as instruments of social control. In an authoritarian society, truth is limited and not all individuals have access to it. Most people have to accept the “truth” of the dominant person or group and must conform to this “truth” in their thoughts and actions. To stay in power, the leadership of an authoritarian state will use any means of persuading or forcing others that they consider necessary. At different times we have seen examples of this in Africa – in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya and Nigeria. In this kind of society, the ruling elite uses the press as an educational and propaganda tool for controlling the people. They do not tolerate any criticism of the government. They do not see truth and objectivity/fairness as the most important principles guiding the media. Their view is that the interests of the state must come first, and they, the ruling class, must decide what these interests are. 

Libertarian theory 

This theory says the press was not just an instrument of the state. Libertarians believe we are rational beings who are able to distinguish right from wrong. Furthermore, they believe that society should create a forum, a free market of ideas so that people could look at different ideas and then choose freely. Thus the liberatarians believe there should be no formal controls at all over what can be published in the press or other media. Rather, they feel that where all ideas have an equal chance, truth will stand and win. The spreading of these ideas led to the acceptance of basic human rights such as freedom of speech and of the press. According to libertarianism anyone with enough money could start and publish a newspaper. But then people began to see that the media could use information not to inform the public but rather just to increase the circulation of the newspapers. So a new point of view developed which proposed that the press could no longer be allowed to function with total freedom. 

Social Responsibility theory 

A new approach to the role of the media in society developed, namely the social responsibility theory. Here objectivity is vitally important. Supporters of this theory felt that it was closely linked to the libertarian theory. However, the social responsibility theory develops, changes and deepens certain libertarian ideas – especially after World War II. Most English-language newspapers in South Africa have taken social responsibility as their guiding theory. During the apartheid era, various editors started to reject the strongly authoritarian control that the Nationalist Party exerted over the press, these editors began to feel that the social responsibility theory could be a better guide for them. Their group included editors of English-language newspapers and later editors of alternative newspapers and also some Afrikaans newspapers. Basically, this theory emphasises the responsibility that the media has towards society, more than it emphasises press freedom. It says the media should work within certain moral and ethical limitations that are like obligations they must accept. These obligations are mainly to be met by setting high or professional standards of informativeness, truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance. According to this theory the media must accept social responsibility and make sure that different attitudes and directions of thought all get fully and properly represented and heard. The media must see to it that the public has enough information to make necessary decisions. At the same time, freedom is important in this theory. It says the media must guard against possible interference by the state and by any other pressure groups which could threaten the media’s freedom. Control of the media should not be the job of an elite group in government. Rather the journalists themselves must exercise this responsibility, working for newspapers that are mostly privately owned. This theory rejects the way authoritarianism makes control actually lawful so that the media has no freedom of choice. Only the other hand, it also rejects a situation where there are no principles to limit and guide what the media can publish, that is, where they publish whatever they like and make the most money. This theory has been criticised quite a lot for example as being far too vague. However, it has value for the working journalist in that it gives journos a positive feeling that they are working in the public interest, and doing a public service. It also frees journos from writing only material that will sell well. 

Development journalism 

Development theory became popular in the Third World for fairly obvious reasons – but there are some problems with the idea. The terms Third World, undeveloped nations and developing nations all imply inferiority and something less than the best. I.e. seem to rate the Third World’s industry, commerce and political life against that of the world’s great nations. Some academics thus prefer the term “advancing journalism”. This theory sees the press as an instrument of social justice and a tool for achieving beneficial social change. In other words, the media should carry out positive development tasks in line with nationally established policy. However, in reality things have not worked out in line with this theory. In Africa generally there has been pressure on journalists to ally themselves with the political forces, but in doing so they have lost their independence. The most problematical part of this theory is the principle that the state can interfere with the media and use methods like censorship, state subsidies or direct control and restriction if it does so in order to advance development. In this way journalists can be severely hampered from reporting fully, fairly and independently. Also, we cannot be certain that development DOES get advanced in such situations. Obviously, a new government in a developing country may well wish to adopt the development model. It leaves control of the media in the hands of government if required and yet the media must still take responsibility. If the government decides that the media are not meeting its wishes or that they are challenging the state, it can intervene and apply whatever censure or control it deems necessary. Zimbabwe is a good example of a government seeking to use the press with some degree of compulsion to advance government policies, especially on economic and racial/ethnic issues. Editors who accept this approach must give up some editorial autonomy to government officials and in doing so, they give up their constitutional right to freedom of the press. Journalists in South Africa have had a very unhappy experience with government authoritarianism in the past. Therefore, they will not easily trust any government uncritically or risk their autonomy in the way that the developmental approach requires. Their fears about doing so are based on what they may have seen elsewhere. Thus while the developmental system may offer benefits, journalists feel that it extracts too high a price. Finally, developmental journalism promotes mass rights over those of the individual. It is rooted in the notion of doing what is right for the common good. South Africans have fought hard for their new constitution that protects the rights of the individual and therefore it will be hard for the government to promote the virtues of developmental journalism. However, that does not of course prevent the government of the day doing its best to get the press to report in a developmental way. 

Advantages of developmental journalism 

Development journalism has a lot of attraction for developing countries. First, in countries where poverty is the norm, the government of the day wants and needs as much support as it can get. A press that reports government inefficiencies is therefore not welcome. Also the government will probably have to take decisions which are based on the common good but which harm individual liberties. These decisions may be highly unpopular but they have to be taken, and a hostile press can hold back government’s progress while a supportive press can help the government push these policies ahead. One definition of the duty of a journalist reporting on development is to: “critically examine, evaluate and report the relevance of a development project to national and local needs, the difference between a planned scheme and its actual implementation, and the difference between its impact on people as claimed by government officials, and as it actually is.” The most important function of development journalism is its ability to nation build. However, many political leaders see journalists who do not follow this approach as traitors – and as for example in Kenya, they are charged. 

Disadvantages of Development Journalism 

The pitfalls of the development approach are many. First, the press becomes far less critical and eventually is forced to give up its “watchdog” role in society. As it continually panders to the government, the media loses its critical edge and becomes nothing more than another government mouthpiece. When this happens, it paves the way for a virulent underground or alternative press with a strong anti-government approach. The most dangerous pitfall is the fact that the press gives up its right to question and demand accountability from the government of the day. As the press tries to promote the government and the common good, it can start to lose sight of the individual and the individual’s human rights. In other words, a developmental press has come to be equated with one in which the government exercises tight control and prevents freedom of expression, all in the name of noble ends. Government censorship does only happen in Africa and South America. In 1975 Gandhi imposed strict censorship in India. But despite this censorship, many Indian journalists sneaked into their news columns words, phrases and even sentences and paragraphs that escaped the attention of the censors and that conveyed concealed meanings to knowledgeable readers. Overall, the message for any government is that it will have to struggle to keep up control of the media for very long and will need huge resources to police the system. What starts out as a good idea to promote development may end up a nightmare. 

NAB REFERENCES

ISLAMABAD: The Islamabad High Court (IHC) on Thursday disposed of a petition filed by the former prime minister Nawaz Sharif’s son-in-law challenging the indictment of the Sharif family in the London properties reference.

The accountability court will indict the former prime minister, his daughter Maryam Nawaz and son-in-law retired Captain Mohammad Safdar in the Avenfield Properties reference today (Friday).

This was the third petition filed against the order of the accountability court, which has been hearing four references against Mr Sharif, his children and Finance Minister Ishaq Dar since September 26.

The IHC dismissed all three petitions after a few minutes’ hearing without even issuing notices to the respondents – the National Accountability Bureau (NAB) and the accountability court judge.

On the directions of the Supreme Court, the bureau had prepared three references against Mr Sharif, his sons Hussain and Hassan, daughter Maryam and son-in-law Capt Safdar. The fourth reference was filed against the finance minister.

The apex court has directed the accountability court to conclude proceedings within six months.

Accountability Court Judge Mohammad Bashir on Oct 9 supplied a copy of the reference and a 53-volume report to Ms Sharif and her husband and decided to indict Mr Sharif, his daughter and son-in-law on Oct 13.

Earlier, the same judge had indicted Mr Dar less than 48 hours after supplying him with the requisite documents.

Mr Safdar, through his counsel, contended before the court that under Section 265-C of the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC), the accountability court could indict an accused at least seven days after supplying them copies of the reference and related documents.

A division bench consisting of Justice Athar Minallah and Justice Miangul Hassan Aurangzeb heard the petition.

Mr Safdar’s counsel Amjad Pervez argued that he could not read the 5,000 page, 53-volume report in just three days. Even otherwise, he said, an accountability court gives a minimum of seven days to read the copy of the complaint and related documents before framing charges.

When the bench asked the counsel whether there was any judgement of the superior courts referring to the framing of charges after seven days, the counsel replied in the negative.

However, he asked the bench to restrain the trial court from framing charges until next week.

But the bench declined the request, saying the high court could not stop the trial court’s functioning for this reason. The court termed the petition “premature”, but directed the counsel to raise the matter before the accountability court, adding that the judge of the trial court would pass an appropriate order.

In the petition, Mr Safdar stated that he and his wife were in London to attend to his ailing mother-in-law, who has been undergoing cancer treatment.

According to the petition, Mr Safdar and his wife were voluntarily returning from London to Pakistan to join proceedings of the accountability court when, on Oct 9, the petitioner was arrested at the airport. However, he was released after he furnished the surety bond.

On the same day, the court fixed Oct 13 for the indictment of Mr Sharif, his daughter and her spouse. Since Mr Sharif is already in the UK to tend to his ailing wife, the court will frame charges against him through a pleader.

Published in Dawn, October 13th, 2017

Code of Media Ethics

The basic objective of news dissemination is to ensure that the people know what is happening and understand the possible causes so they can form their own opinions and arrive at their own conclusions. The most valuable asset of a journalist therefore remains public respect, which must first be earned and then maintained through adherence to the highest possible standards of professional integrity.

This is why, if the journalistic community is to play its due role in Pakistan, it must submit its own behaviour to the most rigorous scrutiny. Codification of our ethics is therefore imperative.

Dawn has always strived to discharge its duties and to encourage its staff members to discharge their responsibilities in line with the ideals of journalistic ethics and principles. In keeping with this effort, the following constitutes the baseline standards of a Code of Media Ethics for the members of Dawn’s editorial team, in conformity with universally accepted norms.

Code of Media Ethics

A journalist:

• Must uphold the highest professional and ethical standards and ensure that the information/editorial content being provided by him/her is fair, unbiased, and accurate.
• Shall avoid falsification by distortion, selection or misrepresentation.
• Shall do his/her utmost to correct inaccuracies.
• Shall, at all times, defend the freedom of the press and other media in relation to the collection of information and the expression of comment and criticism.
• Shall strive to eliminate distortion and news suppression.
• Shall not accept any personal favours, bribes or inducements or allow any other factor, such as advertising revenue for the Dawn Media Group, to influence the performance of his/her professional duties.
• Shall not take private advantage of information gained in the course of his/her professional duties.
• Shall protect confidential sources of information which can be shared with the line manager and the Editor.
• Shall mention a person’s age, gender, ethnicity, caste, sect, colour, creed, illegitimacy, disability, marital status, or sexual orientation ONLY if this information is strictly relevant.
• Shall neither originate nor process material which encourages discrimination, ridicule, prejudice or hatred on any of the above mentioned accounts.
• Shall obtain information, data, photographs, and illustrations only by straightforward means; the use of other means can be justified only for reasons of overriding public interest, and with the specific permission of the editor.
• Shall not intrude into anybody’s private life, grief or distress unless it is for reasons of overriding public interest, and then only with the specific permission of the Editor.
• Shall not exceed the limits of ethical caution and fair comment in his/her zeal to break a story.
• Shall not glorify the perpetrators of any illegitimate acts of violence committed under any garb or cause, including honour and religion.
• Shall take care while reporting on militants/insurgents/extremists of the need to balance public interest with the danger of ‘advertising’ extremist ideologies.
• Shall not print or upload gory images of violence, mutilated bodies and victims of any tragedy unless this is inevitable and in the public interest.
• Shall take the greatest care while reporting running stories involving sectarian clashes, communal disturbances, ethnic strife, hostage situations, etc, so as not to cause further deterioration of the situation, jeopardise lives or operations, or fan public discontent and anger.
• Shall not identify or photograph minor children and infants who are the result of sexual abuse, forced marriage or any sort of irresponsible partnering of their parents.
• Shall not identify or photograph rape victims or people living with HIV/AIDS without their permission. In case of minors, particular care will be taken and permission will be sought from their parent/ guardian after discussing potential implications.
• Shall not identify the accused in rape cases till the latter has been indicted by the court.
• Shall not plagiarise, and must honour copyright when using textual, video or image material from external sources.
• Shall not be guilty of gender discrimination, either in the dispensation of his/her professional duties or in his/her interaction with fellow journalists. Shall exhibit sensitivity to gender-role stereotyping by refraining from exploitation and by reflecting the intellectual and emotional equality of both genders whilst writing.
• Shall follow at all times the guidelines on employees’ use of the social media.
• Shall not undermine the rule of law, the supremacy of the Constitution, and democracy, and take care to abide by national and international laws and conventions while reporting/commenting on regional and international affairs.

Why News Exaggerate Things

Does the News Exaggerate Things more than the Importance of the Situation?

Image Credit: Brittan S., Chino, CA

The author's comments:

 I wrote it because i think the news exaggerates.

Do you think what they report on the news is really that important? Well think again. This is a common problem many Americans do not even notice. For example, do you think the Himalayas will have no snow by 2032? This may seem true when said by experts, but think again.

You know many of the people who exaggerate things. For example, you may know this person as the vice president of Bill Clinton; you may more commonly know him as Al Gore. He has exaggerated that the Himalayas will melt by 2032. This has grabbed attention to people, who are now blaming this on the government for not making the cities less polluted.

News sources often exaggerate things because it may seem more exciting to the viewer or people who are watching the news. For example if the news were to have the title of the breaking news story “The decline of average revenue in Microsoft went down 1%”. In other words this would not be an interesting situation. If we were to say, “The president broke his arm today, climbing a flight of stairs”. That would intrigue viewers to watch the news. There is a common saying in local media “If it bleeds it leads”. This means that if it is a violent and a crime related story more viewers would watch it.

Some of the examples of the past and in recent are for instance the Al Gore statement about the Himalayas that it was going to melt by the year of 2032. When this was said in the documentary “The inconvenient truth” It was a big controversy in the news. The news stations started saying that the Himalayas would melt by 2032.Another statement everyone was widely afraid of was the H1N1 disease, commonly known as the swine flu.CNN predicted 90,000 deaths, when only 4,000 deaths occurred in America.

Does all this exaggeration get them more viewers? Well according to Nielsen Ratings it seems like it does. Nielsen Ratings is a well known company for recording ratings and other data about TV shows and TV networks. CNN, the station with the most reports about exaggerating news has 100 million viewers watching it. Compared to the other top television networks, for example: Fox, ABC, and NBC, it is the leading network with the most viewers. Therefore, since CNN has the most reports of exaggerating, it probably gets more viewers from a combination of commonly reporting crime and violence.

Are you one of those people who get stressed easily over little things? Well there many people like you out there. And the news does not help at all. We may use the news a lot for getting information and even learning about new things, but it also stresses people out. The news may say positive things but it mostly focuses on the negative things, remember the saying “if it bleeds it leads”. This can cause stress in many people. Reports also show that if you have a positive attitude this lowers your blood pressure. So this could shorten our lives though, but not by much.

There are many channels which are positive. Following in the second most viewed channel is Fox. Even though CNN is in the first, Fox would be a more reliable source. You may also want to read multiple sources of the news to get an overall idea of what is happening around the world. Do not just read one source. If you read other sources you can see if they all match up, or at least are close. So remember, next time while watching the news, think about the reality.

MCM 516 TV NEWS REPORTING AND PRODUCTION

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VULESSON 01

CREATIVITY AND IDEA GENERATION FOR TELEVISION

Importance of Television among other mediaIn this age of Globalization and information mass media are indispensable tools of communication and in

this era of science and technology the space and time have been squeezed. History witnessed the traditional

warfare, followed by Cold warfare, Psychological warfare and then the modern warfare but in today’s media

warfare the words are weapons and the satellites are the artillery and due to information imperialism it’s the

matter of information haves and information have-nots.

Leaflets, pamphlets, flyers, brochures, booklets, books, magazines, digests, posters, mountings, buntings,

flags, banners, billboards, hoardings, radio, film, theater, are all tools of communication but television has its

own role to play amongst all these media and we come across it in are day-to-day life as we all are avid user of

this medium.Purpose of televisionEducation, edification, acculturation, persuasion, propaganda, entertainment, amusement, infotainment are

the main objectives of a television.Impact of televisionUnlike radio, the time organized channel and newspaper, the space organized channel, the television has both

the characteristics in it and here space as well as time is utilized for the sake of communication. So the

television is more powerful medium with greater impact.Picture is the baseThere is Chinese quotation, “A picture is worth one thousands words” means that a picture communicates

eloquently and it gives the viewer the whole comprehension of what is being watched. The same picture is

also the foundation of the television on which these pictures move with a specific speed. There are twenty

five frames or pictures in a second which we see on the screen of a television.

Earlier the term of “Motion picture” came based on the same fact that on the screen there were “pictures in

motion”. Later the term was replaced by the “Film” and “Movie”. In a movie that may be for the film on

cinema or the any programme on the television the basic formula is that either the camera is moving or the

object is in the motion.Phases in preparation of a TV programmeThe production for the television is a complex work and needs a lot of attention and care. Any of the

television programmes under goes through following phases:• Pre-production phase• Production phase• Post-production phaseThe first stage involves the “library work” i.e. research and script writing.

The second stage involves the “leg work” i.e. field and studio work.

The third stage involves the “laboratory work” i.e. editing and mixing.

The best production will be the result of good management and planning.The prime responsibilities of a Producer are to:

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU• Generate an idea of a programme• Presentation of the idea• Refine that idea for production• Develop a concept• Decide the contents• Engaging a researcher• Getting the script written• Hunting the talent i.e. actors, anchors, newscasters• Preparing the Programme Budget Estimate• Making the arrangements• Coordinating with different sections• Discussion with the set designer for indoor programmes• Reconnaissance or survey of location for outdoor programmes• Discussion with the cameraman• Planning for the programme• Casting of artists and performer• Scheduling the recording• Rehearsals of the participants• Recording the programme with production crew• Editing the programme with Editor• Audio mixing• Adding graphics• Making title and promos

A good director and producer needs to carry on all these steps to the best of his capabilities and to the

optimum level of his efficiency. Better the programme planning and the time management, greater the quality

and value of the production. The creativity will not be well on screen if the whole process is not executed

properly and timely.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VULESSON 02PRE-REQUISITES OF A CREATIVE PRODUCER/DIRECTORA creative Producer has to present the idea and have to work till its execution for making the programme

ready for the telecast.

An idea is any conception existing in the mind as the result of mental understanding, awareness or activity.

It’s a thought, a notion, an impression, an opinion, a point of view, a belief, a plan of action a concept

developed by the mind and a theme.

A producer therefore is required to possess certain characteristics and qualities of mind and soul.• Creative• Innovative• Analytical• Logical• Critical• Deep observation• Vast study• Visualization power• Decision power• Sense of humour• Sense of proportion• Acute conclusion• Common sense• Aesthetic sense• Great exposure• Editorial judgment• Self starter• Initiative• Team leader• Forbearance• Tolerance• Practical experience• General knowledge• Courage• Confidence• Bravery• Time management• Accuracy• Precision• Conviction• Consistency• Ethics• Communication• Motivation• Determination• Patience• Fairness in controversy• Disinclined

• Unbiased• Unprejudiced• Investigative• Informative• Inquisitive• Objectivity• Subjectivity• Technically sound• Pleasant personality• Command and control

Keeping in the view that a TV programme can never be anticipated good or bad as the viewer have there own

choices, a producer has to prepare the programme to the utmost of one’s abilities.

The audiences have many choices of channels and the variety of these television programmes give then open

chance to select the programme the want at some particular period of time.• Selective exposure: we use the medium we want• Selective Perception: we understand the things we like• Selective retention: we remember the content we need

Thus a producer should feel the pulse of the viewers and should design the programme in such a way that it

reaches to the target audience as it is being telecast and for that there are again two factors one should bear in

the mind;• Common frame of reference• Mutual field of experience

Common frame of reference is that the viewer has the understanding of the content which is being shown on

the screen as it is in their knowledge.

Mutual field of experience is that the audience can feel themselves a part of the matter they are watching in a

television programme.

The programme will be successful if there are greater numbers of viewers who can relate to the programme

on TV so the producer should take care of the fact that the things close to reality and the matters of our dayto-day life are of vital importance and capture more attention.

LESSON 03

REFINING AN IDEA FOR PRODUCTION

The presentation of an idea is also an art. It is necessary that what ever a creative director or producer

visualize about a future programme should be presented in blank and white for consideration of authorities

and the organization.

Following are the ingredients for the presentation of an idea before the execution of a programme:-

Title: Name of the programme

Type: Form of programme

Language: Mode of communication

Genre: Kind of contents

Frequency: Rate of telecast

Duration: Length of time

Target audience: Potential viewers

Format: Arrangement of sequences

Theme: Central ideaTitleThe title should be representative, comprehensive and self-explanatory. It can be symbolic as well but again it

ought to be meaningful.

The title is the face of the programme so it must be descriptive and expressive.TypeThe type is the kind of appearance a programme has on the screen. It can be as many types as following.Drama• Drama serial• Drama series• Soap serial• Mini-serial• Sit-com situational comedy• Long play• Tele-film• Short filmMagazine Shows• Talk show• Music show• Magazine show• Celebrity show• Health show• Commerce show• Road show• Game show• Cooking show• Beauty showDocumentary

• Historical• Informative• Investigative• Docu-dramaSpecific audience programming• Religious programmes• Women programmes• Children programmes• Sports programme• News programmes• Current affairs programmes• Views and comments programmes• Analytical programmes• Opinion formation programmesLanguage• International as English, Arabic, French etc.• National as Urdu, Persian, Chinese• Provincial as Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashtu, Balochi• Regional as Saraiki, Hindko, Barahvi, GujratiGenre• Comedy• Tragedy• Action• Thriller• Adventurous• Romantic• Fiction• Historical• Epic• Science fiction• FantasyFrequency• Daily• Weekly• Fortnightly• Monthly• Quarterly• Biannually• AnnuallyDuration• 3 minutes

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 7• 5 minutes• 10-15 minutes• 25 minutes• 50 minutes• 90 minutesTarget audience• General public• Youth• Students• Kids/children• Women• Senior citizens• Formers/peasants• Businessmen• Industrialist• Traders• Educationist• Lawyers• Doctors• Workers• ResearchersFormatIt is the arrangement of the programme and the order of the appearance of performers, artists or the

participants. The producer should have the sequence of all the talent in writing so that during the recording

same plan is followed.ThemeIt is the central idea of any programme, normally called the one-liner in the telecast industry. It’s the plan of

action on which a producer has to work to carry on any type of production.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 8LESSON 04CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT

Concept

What is a concept?• A general notion• A conception• A comprehension• A construct• A thing formed in the mind• A directly conceived or intuited object of thought• An idea of something formed by mentally combining all its characteristics or particulars• A general idea derived or inferred from specific instance or occurrence

The concept development is next step; a producer has to take after generation of an idea and before its

execution.

Before we take concept in the scenario of production, let’s discuss the concept in mass media research

perspective.

A concept is a notion about a natural phenomenon. For example “mass” is a concept having different

notions to different people. To a scientist mass is a term for the physical appearance of a matter but to a

social scientist mass is general public. So is the apprehension about the term “medium” to a lay man it is

about the size but to a media person it is the channel and tool of communication.

A construct is the combination of two concepts. For example “Mass” is a concept, “Media” is again a

concept and the “Mass Media” is a construct which give a third meaning as a whole phrase. These concepts

in researched studies are measure as variables.VariableIt is the changing value of quantity or quality of a thing or concept is called variable. As the term itself defines

it is “able to vary”. We come across different variable in our studies. Variable are used in scientific as well as

social sciences research.

In case of traveling it is a common observation that “more the speed, greater the distance” or in another

example “frequent media use socializes the audience. In any phenomenon under study there have to be two

variables at least.Independent variableIt is the variable whose value is independent to change and normally it is denoted by “x” and is placed

horizontally on the graph with its negative values on the opposite side if required. For example “speed” is an

independent variable. Media exposure may be the other example.Dependent variableIt is the variable whose value is dependent to change and normally it is denoted by “y” and is placed vertically

on the graph with its negative values on the opposite side if required. For example “distance” is a dependent

variable. Socialization from media may be the other example. A dependent variable is dependent on the

independent variable.Intervening variable

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 9It is the variable which effects the relation of the independent and dependent variable. For example in `

“quality of the road” is an intervening variable. Tune-in time may be the other example.Extraneous variableIt is the variable which does not directly influence the relation of independent and dependent variable. It is

not as pertinent as an intervening variable. For example “the traffic conditions” is an extraneous variable.

Attention of the viewer may be the other example in relation to the above-mentioned cases.Types of research

Pure and applied research is Scientific or laboratory research.Descriptive research is Social or library research.Qualitative research deals with the qualitative variablesQuantitative research deals with the quantitative variables

Research is the base of any programme especially in Talk show and documentaries. Interviewing the right

persons after they have been identified as able person who are in knowledge of an event, gives a producer

great deal of satisfaction and sense of perfection in the post production phase.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 10LESSON 05RESEARCH AND REVIEWSFor any of the programme produced for the television research is of vital importance as it makes the

production factually sound and technically sound.What is research?• Research is constant navigation to know the truth.• Research is continuous effort to dig out facts.• Research is an endeavour to find something new.• Research is making new interpretation of existing knowledge.• Research is an addition to already present knowledge.

According to a mass media research expert Kerlinger, “It is systematic, controlled, critical and empirical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about presumed relations among natural phenomena.”Research Procedure• Selection of a problem• Research question• Making hypothesis• Review of available literature• Experimental design• Research suppliers• Data collection• Analysis and interpretation of data• Presentation of research• ReplicationSelection of a topicIt is to select the topic on which the research is to be conducted. This is very important as it’s the foundation

of the whole research procedure. A researcher has to be very cautious and keen while selecting a topic for

study, there are certain questions one must keep in mind before the conduct of research.• Is topic too broad?• Are the data susceptible to analysis?• Can the results of the study be generalized?• Will the study cause any harm to the subjects?Review of available literatureBefore we start a research study we need to review all kind of literature available to us so that our research

may not be duplication of already existing study. It is always better to review the literature present following

forms.• Books• Newspapers• Magazines• Archives• Encyclopedias

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 11• Research journals• Educational studies• Findings by research institutesStatement of problemNext step of research is to state the problem under study. The topic of research contains the issue but here

we elaborate the problem in form of a statement.Research questionAfter stating the problem the research question is formulated so that variables in the researched can be easily

defined and then studied.Making hypothesisHypothesis is the supposition made in anticipation as what may be the result of a particular study. It’s the

assumption made in advance and normally there are more than one hypothesis formed the first and basic

hypothesis is called “Null hypothesis” and is denoted by “H0”while the substitute hypothesis is called

“alternative hypothesis” and is denoted by “H1”.Experimental designDesign in research means the plan of action a researcher will follow in due course of research. It is the type of

the research to be used in study, may it be survey research or content analysis.Research suppliersThese are the persons through whom the data is collected on certain topic. They may be students, institutes

or employ of any organization that are to provide the responses of general public to the questions of research.Data collectionData collection is the next step in research procedure as at this stage data is collected directly from the

audience or indirectly through the research suppliers.Analysis and interpretation of dataThe data gathered is then analyzed by different techniques and finally interpreted in form of tables, graphs (pi

graph, bar graph, line graph) and notes.Presentation of researchOnce the research study is finalized, the results are presented in form of a thesis or dissertation for the

publication of research.ReplicationReplication is reproduction or duplication of a research study in case the desired results are not being

achieved from the null hypothesis and the researcher has to resort to the alternative hypothesis.Research in television productionThe research procedure properly followed can give a good and authentic outcome. Research based

documentation for production is very exciting, one can create a difference, doing the impossible.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 12A good producer has to have knack of finding out related facts from just one single fact one has been told.

It’s like seeing the ice berg tip while the bulk is under the water.

In television production research is mostly used in following areas:-• Documentary• Travelogue• Historical play• Docu-drama• Talk show• Current affairs

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 13LESSON 06SCRIPT WRITINGThe script writing is an important step in the production of any television programme and the producer

should choose such an author having the knowledge of writing a screen play. The subjects for the TV

production should be one not treated in book. The writer should have the mental images built on

remembrance of scenes and experience which help to visualize and create the scenery. He or she must have

“eye of mind” and be capable of making mental pictures.

The plot of any story, drama, novel, or play has following basic ingredients:-• Introduction: beginning• Complication: development of complications• Culmination: climax of conflict• Solution: resolution of issues• Conclusion: ending

The writer should keep in mind that the characters must be intensely human, close to real life and day to day

situations. More universal the theme, greater is the audience. A good author has a study of lives of those who

will be the audience so he or she should develop the ability to write dialogue by listening to the conversation

of those particular people.

A good script has following components:-• Purpose: to justify its viewer-ship• Simplicity: to make it look true• Familiarity to be directly communicable

The situations in the play should be easily assimilated and there must not be any loophole in the story. The

conflict and then the resolution, setting the problem, explanation of factors involved all should be weaved

properly. There are as many stories as many of persons, where ever you find a human being, you find a drama

there.Elements of a successful story• Extraordinary swiftness• Economy of words• Rapid development of situation• Promise of future development• Immediate attention• Powerful atmosphere• Striking characterization• Intriguing unusual setting• Extremely usual settingDo’s in script writinga) Opening should be catchy to hold the audience

b) The style, diction and contents should introduce the play

c) Logical development of the story is necessary

d) Tempo to be fast.

e) Planned forward action.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 14f) Element of suspense is vital.

g) Surprise grabs the attention.

h) Language should be used according to situation and story.

i) Definite ending is a must for a story.

j) All problems to be solved in the end.

k) All characters accounted for what they have done.

l) A tragic or unhappy ending may be satisfactory if a moral can be deduced.

m) Policy matters to be dealt carefully.Don’ts in script writinga) Profanity and blasphemy

b) Vulgarity and obscenity

c) Belittling of any race or caste

d) Criticism on any religion or sect

e) Physical deformities not to be made humorous.

f) Crime, murder and suicide to be discouraged

g) Degrading any colour or creed

h) Use of poor grammar

i) Offending humour

j) Offensive statements

k) Too talky script

l) Unintentional interruption to be avoided

m) Words with multiple meanings to be shunnedCharactersThe writer of the script must also make each actor act in the way as the characters, are supposed to act in real

life and in the dialogues emotions must be brought to the viewers. They should speak in clearness and

directness.Actor-proof scriptThe television script should be an “actor-proof” script, as it should be written in such a way that it can not

be misinterpreted by the performers so the sentences are good to be short, crisp, clear and simple.EffectsThe effects are the moods, emotions, gestures, original sound, music, whispers, exclamations and questions.LengthThe story should be timed exactly and tempo must be maintained. Rehearsals are the source to measure time

and it can be increased or decreased accordingly.ManuscriptThe script should be legible and double-spaced with margins on sides. The characters, names, ages, type of

personality, place and location should be all well defined.Submitting the manuscriptIt should be well in time for the approval of the authorities in the organization or a television channel.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 15LESSON 07PRE-PRODUCTION PHASEThe pre-production phase is an important and the foremost stage for any production as it’s the foundation of

the programme being produced, whether its news or entertainment programme.

The director infuses in to the script, certain liveliness and life like quality through the means of scenes. He or

she is the final judge in the matter of conflict. Characterization, motivation and technique are the elements,

which polish a production.

The director should aim at audience;• To develop dislike for what is unfair and untrue• To develop disgust for which is cheap and substandard• To develop indifference for which is trivial and meaningless• To develop enthusiasm for what is fine true and important

The director for oneself should develop the habit of;• Self-control• Self-respect• Self-reliance

A good director should coach his cast and train himself. The purpose of a director in the final production is

to create for the audience, the same emotional feeling, he or she had while reading the script. Every

programme has a mood and an emotional experience to present. The audience should be attracted by all

those things, which build up mind, body and soul.

Spoken words are the inflammatory things. Human voice is the most potent conveyer of emotions. Language

is an instrument that appeals to imagination of human being.

Knowledge of music is another asset for a director as music is identification of a play or a character. It bridges

from locale to locale, time to time and mood to mood.Programme Budget Estimate (PBE)Preparation of the Programme Budget Estimate is also the duty of a producer as other than the directorial

function the producer has to manage the finances of the production on behalf of the organization or the

channel, he or she is working for. In this whole cost of direct or indirect expenditures are mentioned for the

approval from the finance department. PBE is made for a complete quarter that is of thirteen weeks and all

expected expanses are catered in it.Studying the scriptWhile studying a script a director should:-• Digest the script to get the real mood and feeling.• See that the script is approximately of right length• Suggest small changes if required to better the performance• Hear the whole script, as one reading is not enough

As far as the script is concerned, one reading is never sufficient and a director and producer should hear the

whole script as well from the writer.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 16First reading is silent to conceive, what he script says. It helps the director to understand the sequences of

the story and to make the storyboard.Second reading is to make the notes, writing the ideas in to the margins, checking the positions of actors in

relation to camera, placement of microphones and adjustment of lights on performers.Third reading is to read with the mind focused on the actors who are to portray the different parts, deciding

on the type of expression, physical traits, gestures and body language.

Moreover, survey for the location in case of outdoor recording and set designing for indoor recordings are

also two major factors to be considered in pre-production phase. Properties on the sets, wardrobe, dresses

and costumes of the artists, their make-up and get-up are also the elements to be considered well at preproduction stage.

Once the director is finished with all above-mentioned matters then comes the next step that is casting.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 17LESSON 08SELECTION OF REQUIRED CONTENT AND TALENTAfter finalizing and idea, making the budget, getting the script, studying rather digesting it, next comes the

casting for the programme and we all know that talent hunt is a difficult job as to find the right person for the

right job is always challenging.

The producer has to be very keen at he stage of casting because the good acting or performance removes,

from the minds of audience any remoteness and must cause them to perceive living personalities enacting a

portion of life.

The performance of any actor must give the character meaning so the actor or artist must be accurately

chosen.

A poor cast can ruin a very good script and a poor script may sometimes be made into a fairly decent show

with carefully chosen performers, artistically blended.

The casting committee is concerned of two things:-

What comes out at the screen?

What happens in the minds of viewer?

In the television either public or private sector productions now a days there are only contract actors are

available, although there are staff artist in radio. A producer can choose from existing artists, or if he/she has

time so auditions can be arranged for the fresh faces and new talent.

If a dramatic director does not know his potential coast, it is wise for one to hold auditions or tryouts.

He/she will carefully select the artists as per characters, keeping in mind, the audition may play their part in

casting a play, they are never wholly satisfactory because; actors never feels that he/she has done the best and

director never knows what an actor can do until he/she has seen them in a play or performance.

It is best to cast an artist by watching him/her on screen with proper make-up, makeover and getup with

original lines and dialogues.

The director watches following things for the flexibility of performance:-

1. Displaying an understanding of lines

2. Varying speed according to material

3. Expressing emotions without shouting

4. Giving expressions, stresses and pauses

5. Throwing cue lines to co-artists

6. Delivering the dialogue in true spirit

In casting it is best to watch the talent on screen or monitor not in studio or the office unless he knows his

artist very well, he should try many. The actor should not read the script merely; they should deliver the

dialogues as emotions full of expressions.

Having decided upon the selection of the artists, the producer should fix the time of rehearsals, which

include:-Simple rehearsal

Dry rehearsal

Camera rehearsal

Full rehearsal

Final rehearsal

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 18It is good to distribute a copy of script to each performer, if they retain it they can thoroughly familiarize with

the characters they are to portray and also gain an idea of the whole drama, knowing the show well. The artist

will be able to give more intelligent reading of their lines and thus time will be saved in rehearsals.

Since a producer has to work against time, each bit of time saved is valuable to him and to the channel or

organization he is working for.

Each actor underlines the character whose part he takes, each time it appears and if the speech is carried over

the next page, “more” is written at the bottom of the page, however every effort should be made by the

writer or the script typist to complete it within the page and next lines be written ob next pages.First rehearsal is generally quite informal, merely reading the script without the microphone or the camera.

The director explains his idea of the script and tells the cast the effect he wishes to create. The director

should encourage the artist to interpret the part he or she has been assigned. He will guide the actors but

avoid dictating them the characterization. He gives the cast the picture as he desires it and places them the

responsibility of the achievement.Dry rehearsal is in the studio, on the set or location with the talk back microphones, signals by the floor

manager and director makes further suggestions about the characterization, interpretation, pronunciation and

enunciation.Camera rehearsal is for the placement and movement of cameras and all the instruments and apparatus in

place. Members of the play or show know their parts and duties.

Time management is also done in rehearsals. For ease a director can keep stopwatch to measure the pace and

tempo.Final rehearsal is one before the recording but prior to that a director has fairly accurate timing of the

programme and he knows which part can be eliminated with out loss to the performance and story, so the

director can time each page of the script, writing down the exact time at the bottom pf each page. The

detailed timing is necessary for the perfect control of the time element while the programme is being

recorded.

It is good idea to cut a script down for required number of rehearsals and many factors enter in to

determination of answers;

1. The script itself

2. The ability of the artists

3. The amount of time

4. The degree of difficulty

5. The efficiency of director

No good director will stop rehearsing until he/she is certain that his show reached the highest degree of

perfection.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 19LESSON 09PROGRAMME PLANNINGThe planning of a programme in pre-production is very important to avoid any unpleasant situation and

untoward event as sometimes it may happen that unforeseen problem occurs so better the planning, greater

the quality. Every channel or TV station has a planning section or department to facilitate the producers.

Each producer before programme meets the planning officer to discuss the requirements for the production.Outdoor ProductionDuring the outdoor production, mostly single camera is used in news coverage, media briefings or even

drama and documentary programmes. For the purpose an Electronic News Gathering (ENG) and a producer

has to requisite a recording shift.Technical equipment required• Camera• Neck microphone• Hand microphone• Cable microphone• Cordless microphone• Baby light• Kit light• Sun gun• Monitor• Reflector• Tapes• Battery charger• Transport• Make up• Costumes• Confirmation of participants• Location managementFor outstation recordings• Tour authorization• Accommodation• Boarding and lodgingTechnical staff required• Director• Cameraman• Light man• Boom operator• DriverIndoor Production

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 20For the indoor production, mostly three cameras are used in Talk shows, current affairs discussions and

drama programmes. For the purpose complete studio is engaged and a producer has to requisite a recording

shift.Technical equipment required• Studio requisition• Three Cameras• Neck microphone• Hand microphone• Cable microphone• Cordless microphone• Set installed• Lighting• Panel/switcher• Camera control unit• Audio console• Cassette Recorders• Cassette Players• Functional Monitors• Tapes• Make up• Properties• Wardrobe• Costumes• Confirmation of participants• Gate passesTechnical staff required• Director• Cameramen• Lighting director• Light men• Boom operator• Camera Control Unit (CCU) engineer• Audio engineer• Recording Engineer• Set designer• Studio hands• Studio hands• Floor managersPoints to ponderFor different programmes the planning is different so a producer should manage likewise so that the

production process may not sufferOutdoor broadcast

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 21For this purpose OB van is used which has the provision of panel, switcher, camera control unit, audio

console, Cassette recorders, Cassette players. The OB van provides a director all the technical facilities of

studios out side the studio.Electronic Field Production (EFP)As the Outdoor Broadcast van is used and the cameras are patched that is those are giving the output to

panel directly, such kind of makeshift studio environment in outdoors is called EFP.Talk showsFor the talk shows, we require microphones for each participant and a cordless hand microphone is preferred

if the programme has the audience participation as well. The distribution of invitation cards is also done in

advance to fill the talk so with life. If there is any report or package to be shown so the set should have the

provision of a plasma screen also.Live coverageFor the live coverage like some national event, some special show the arrangements are on broader scale.Music show or concertFor such shows heavy lights, floodlights, and colourful lights are used to create dramatic effects. Crane and

jib are also frequently in use in these shows.Mega showsFor telethons, marathon transmissions, many shifts of staff as well as participants are required so the director

should plan it well.Award ceremoniesAll the channels and media organizations hold their award ceremonies and a lot of in house staff and artist are

invited which involves a lot of boarding and lodging.Sports eventsThe events like marathon, horse races, cricket matches, football, hockey, basketball, tennis and other games

are multiple camera production so the planning is to cater all the production.Approval of authority for the venueWhen a TV channel is organizing or holding a programme in a certain location, the approval of the relevant

authority for the venue must be sought.Security managementAs the installation of Television are expensive and sensitive as well so proper security measures are necessary.Refreshment of artists and staffMany programme are of longer duration so the arrangements for the food and beverages are also to be

catered in coordination with the administration department.Continuities

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 22The assistant director is responsible to keep a track of different continuities:-• Continuity of dialogue• Continuity of Situation• Continuity of dress• Continuity of makeup

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 23LESSON 10PRODUCTION PHASEThe production phase starts with the set designing in the indoor programmes as the set is of the vital

importance in any kind of production.

There are different types of sets as per he demand of the producer and the nature of the programmes.Traditional setThe sets with traditional look having arches and building designs are the one mostly used in historical plays.

These sets are also called “hard or real sets” as are made by hard material like wood and metal.

These sets involve a lot of furniture and other decoration items to give the production a classical touch.Contemporary setNow a days the sets used in television industry are mostly graphical with computer generated effects.

These sets are also called “soft or virtual sets” as are made by computer graphics using chrome key and

animations.

Chrome key is to place a synthetic background behind the key talent that may be compere, or an anchor.Lighting setThe set in which different lighting patterns are used to give the symbolic representation of the mood of the

programmes are called lighting set, and different colours of lights are used in it.Black screen setIn this kind of set the horizon of the studio wall is utilized with out any light on it giving an impact of

darkness all around but a spot light on the characters.Single screen setThis set is used when only one object or character is to be recorded for some programme that may be linking

of a show or a magazine show with single background.Two-screen setThis set is used when two persons are talking to each other, mostly in talk shows such kind of sets is used.Three-screen setThe programmes having the participants or panelists on both sides of anchor involve three-screen sets.

Today with latest innovation in computer graphics technology to create highly realistic or fully imaginative

environment, a virtual set is the replacement for the real or physical set. They can be integrated into telecast

production in replacement of or in combination with a real set.

In theory, design categories in television production are readily classified with the programme types and

utility. There are three types in this regard.Non-representational setIn this kind of sets the scenery for general background purpose is used.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 24• News• Interviews• Talk shows• Forums• Political discussions• Analysis and opinion• Religious programmesRepresentational setThese set are used in the programmes where the story or the plot content is of fictional nature:-• Drama• Show• Documentary• Celebrity show• Magazine show• Science show• Children show• Women showAbstract setsIn such sets there is more margin of diversity as these are stylized sets.• Musical concerts• Mega shows• Extravaganza• Variety showDesign elementsFollowing are the elements of the design:-LineIt is any mark connecting two points that may be curved or straight.ShapeIt is any thing that has height and width and the basic shapes are rectangle, triangle and circle.TextureIt is the look and feel of the surface.SpaceIt is the distance or the area between and around different things.SizeIt is how large or small a thing can be.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 25Work procedure of design department• Producer designer discussion• Planning• Concept• Floor plan• Producer’s approval• Budgeting• Purchase process• Property store• Carpenter workshop• Welding if any• Painting workshop• Erection of set in studio• Set decoration• Recording• Dismantling after recording

Whenever viewers sit in front of television, they have an impression of total reality. They seem to be there,

where the action is, seeing every thing as it is happening, for a production team has combined their various

skills to built up a carefully continued illusion, through a cunning blend of camera work, lighting, set design,

audio control and mixing, script, dialogues, performance, editing, makeup and last but not the least direction.

Hence the set designer is an important member of the production team.Make up techniquesDuring production following basic make up improvements are to be made for the better appearance of the

artists on the screen:-

1. Shiny baldhead, Untidy hair, hair too light or dense in camera

2. Perspiration shine

3. Deep eye sockets, eyes lack definition

4. Shiny nose

5. Beard lines prominent despite shaving

6. Wrinkles on the neck

7. Lips definition

8. Age lines over prominent

9. Ears too light, different colour than adjacent skin

10. Eyebrows barely discernableEssentials of Make up• General treatment• Nose treatment• Eye treatment

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 26LESSON 11CAMERA WORKThe camera works on the principal of human eye and it shows what all the human eye watches through its

lens. The eye retains the image for 1/16 second while the camera works at the speed of 25 frames per second

and that’s why the fractions of frames or pictures seem to be moving on the screen.Camera functionsThe camera can be utilized as per the requirement of the shot, situation of he programmes and the mood of

the scene. There are following camera functions generally used in television productions.Movement of lens of cameraDuring this technique only lens of the camera is moved:-• Zoom inImage coming close to viewer• Zoom outImage going away from the viewer• FocusImage becoming sharp• DefocusImage getting blurMovement of camera itselfDuring this technique camera itself is moved• Pan rightCamera is moved towards right side• Pan leftCamera is moved towards left side• Tilt upCamera is moved upwards• Tilt downCamera is moved downwardsMovement of camera with tripodDuring this technique the camera is moved with the pedestal or tripod leaving its place as well.• Dolly inCamera is moved close to the object• Dolly outCamera is moved away from the object

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 27• Track rightCamera is moved to the right side of the object• Track leftCamera is moved to the left side of the objectUse of craneThis is an arrangement of making a cameraman sit on an equipment like crane to make free movement over a

crowd especially used in music show, concerts awards ceremonies.Use of jibThis is an arrangement of making a camera placed on equipment like triangular stay sail set to make free

movement of the camera itself while the operator is on ground controlling the camera.Use of wide-angle lensIt is used when there is a small space available for the movement of camera. It gives the broader perspective

of the shot.Use of fish-eye lensIt is used to create dramatic effect of the situation and to show the panoramic view of the scene.ShotThe frame being captured through the camera lens is called shot. It’s the picture being photographed or scene

being recorded.Types of shots• Extreme close up (ECU)• Big close up (BCU)• Close up (CU)• Medium close up/bust shot (MCU)• Medium shot (MS)• Medium long shot (MLS)• Long shot (LS)• Very long shot (VLS)• Top/High angle shot (looking downwards)• Low angle shot (looking upwards)• Two shot (can be CU/MCU/MS)• Over the shoulder shot (OTS)• Moving subject walking into space• Differential shot

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 28LESSON 12LIGHTS AND AUDIO

Types of camerasAccording to utility there are different types of cameras:-• Handy camera• ENG camera• Full facility camera• Digital camera• XD camera• Beta cameraModels in use• PD 150• PD 170• D 350• D 390• D 250 P• D 35 P• 16 MM• 35 MM• 70 MMTypes of tapes/disks

Video• VTR• U-matic• Beta• DVC Pro• DV cam• Mini DV• VHS• VCD• DVDAudio• Magnetic tape• CD• DATImportance of sound in TVAlthough TV is a visual medium still the there is no video suitable for telecast without good audio. There are

dialogues, music, original or wild sound; all make a package for a complete telecast.Use of microphonePerhaps the best way to emphasize the importance of microphone is to say that without it audio in media

would not exist so every thing for a broadcast or telecast starts with a microphone.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 29The microphone is a transducer that’s converts acoustic or sound energy in to electric energy. This is the

basic function of a microphone. There are different types of microphones having special capabilities

according to varied aesthetic demands of recordings and productions.

For example, in television if a microphone is in the shot, it should be presentable but should not call attention

to itself.

For outdoor productions a microphone must be resistant to the wind sound. When distance is a factor, a

microphone must isolate the sound source and still provide acceptable quality of audio.

The special requirements make microphone selection a critical and ever present creative challenge.

When you choose a microphone, you should know four things:-• What type it is?• What are its directional characteristics?• What does it sound like?• What it looks like?Types of microphones

According to technique• Moving coil/dynamic• Ribbon• Capacitor/condenserAccording to direction• Omni or Multi-directional (picking sound all around)• Bi-directional (Front and rear)• Uni-directional (from front only)According to usage• Neck microphone• Hand microphone• Cordless neck microphone• Cordless hand microphone• Cable neck microphone• Cable hand microphone• Boom handy (outdoor)• Boom on tripod (indoor)According to programme• Drama• Talk show• Music• Magazine show• Documentary

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 30LESSON 13DAY OF RECORDINGTelevision production consists of three basic stages but the production stage and especially the day of

recording is very important in this whole process.• Pre-production• Production• Post-production

Pre-requisites for Indoor Production• Studio requisition• Planning schedule• Studio facilities• Three Cameras• Microphones• Set installed• Any change in required• Lighting• Panel/switcher• Camera control unit• Audio console• Cassette Recorders• Cassette Players• Functional Monitors• Plasma• Telephones• Tapes• Make up• Properties• Wardrobe• Costumes• Confirmation of participants• Pick and drop• Gate passes• Technical staffRehearsalsThe rehearsals are very important be fore recordings as these provide an opportunity to the performers to

get them acquainted with the studio environment and the co-starts so that there can be harmony on the

screen among them.Producer during recordings:Do not fatigue the crew with odd moves

Do not burden the artist with retakes

Do not spoil the mood of recording

Do not be panic while at workCamera Moves and mechanism of recording

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 31These are necessary to be decided between the camera crew and the producer that how the camera would

move and how the artists would perform accordingly. The producer tries to establish the locale and finalizes

the shot divisions.Noting on script or registerIt’s always good to keep an account of the recording which helps in post-production phase a lot so the

producer should jot down the points on the script or some separate register.Communication during recordingA producer is supposed to pass instruction to the persons involved in recording so he has different sources

available:• Talk back microphone for the compare/anchor/host• Studio microphone to address the audience• Head phone to communicate with cameramenTele-lightThe red light on camera gives the indication to the artist that which camera is on record and it is for the

cameramen as well to know that their camera is switched so they shod not spoil the shots.Pre-requisites for single camera Outdoor Production• Single Camera• Microphones• Lights• Monitor• Reflector• Tapes• Battery charger• Transport• Make up• Costumes• Confirmation of participants• Location managementFor outstation recordings• Tour authorization• Accommodation• Boarding and lodgingPoint to ponderIf you are well at script, you will be good on floor

If something is not clear on papers, it will not be clear on screen also.Floor management

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 32It is also an important job often done by the production assistant or the assistant director. The entries of

different characters and the maintenance of different continuities are important for ant production.The production staffThey are concerned primarily with the programme’s content and development.• Producer• Director• Assistant director• Lighting director• Designer• Production assistantThe production crewThey are concerned with the equipment operation.• Cameraman• Audio engineer• Audio technicians• Video technicians• Floor manager• Studio hands• Studio supervisor• Switcher• Recording engineerUnderstanding and harmonyTelevision production is a team operation that requires the combined effort of dozens of skilled individuals to

produce a programme. Technical as well as human communication is vital for successful production.

The television studio complex consists of two main areas:The Control RoomIt is the operational command center where programme elements are directed and coordinated. It has a panel

for recording purpose, switcher for inter-cutting and switching between the output given by different

cameras, Camera control unit, audio console, recorder and communication system for the cameramen, artists

and audience.The studio floorIt is the area where the actual activity of production takes place that may be set of a talk show, drama, news

bulletin or some play having performers.The day of recordingTelevision production starts with the programme planning, when the over all production concept and

approach are developed and organized as well as programme elements are rehearsed and coordinated.

Then comes the production phase that can be either live or recorded followed by then the postproduction

phase when videotapes is edited and additional video and audio material is added to the edited master tape.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 33The producer should control the production in all aspects and assure the quality of the programme being the

mastermind and the captain of the ship.

The contents of the programme must be carefully watched at all following stages:• Research• Script writing• Dramatization• Screenplay• Storyboard• Rehearsals• Dialogue delivery• Accent/pronunciationTeleprompter machineIt is a machine to facilitate the newsreader to read the news while having direct eye contact into the lens of a

camera and is controlled with the feet of newscaster. It is a screen between reader and camera that is visible

to reader but does not affect the view of camera. The whole script of news bulletin is scrolled upward with

the machine so that newscaster can easily read it without remembering the complete bulletin.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 34LESSON 14LINEAR EDITING AND NLEThe different mediums of performing arts are dependent on distinctive persons who are the backbone of any

particular medium.• Film is a director medium.• Theater is an actor medium.• Radio is a speaker medium.• Television is a producer medium.

After the recording is completed with the announcement of “pack up” the recorded material on different

tapes called “Chunks” in form of bits and pieces of scenes and shots with tapes numbered and marked are

taken to the editing desk for post-production.

It is always good to have noting of all recorded chunks on a paper by the producer or any of the assistants, as

it is the guideline for the editing. The noting should have:• Episode• Scene• Take

Writing all these details in a register will be helpful during editing of the programme as it is said,

“Memorandum is always better than memory”

One must not put the memory in to examination and written matter is always recorded.EditingThe word edit is synonymous to prepare, correct, tidy up, check over, revise, amend, change, alter, modify,

adjust, transform. It is to trim or better, add or remove from the existing written matter or visual material.

The words of editor, editorial, sub-editor, editor and chief editor are derived from the same.Editing suite/roomThe editing apparatus consists of a panel like a keyboard of a computer added by a round knob to shuttle and

jog on machines having recorded material with different monitors for the separate display. Usually there are

three recording machines used as:• Player 1• Player 2• Recorder

Players are the sources that supply the chunks recorded in bits and pieces. Normally first player has the

basic visuals that is main video and player two has the secondary data that can be background voice or

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 35Some strips, graphics, names to be super-imposed, overlaid or inserted on the primary video while the

recorder takes the final output given by the both players.Types of EditingThere are two types of editing techniques used according to machines.• Linear Editing• Non-linear Editing (NLE)Linear Editing1. It is time bound as a particular time code is followed to access different data.

2. It is done on and by videocassettes and tapes.

3. Videocassettes players and recorders are used in it.Non-linear Editing (NLE)1. It is not time bound as with a single keystroke or mouse click different data can be accessed.

2. It is done on computers as the data is transferred from tapes to computers.

3. Various software programmes are used in it.EditorEditor is the one who plays a vital role in post-production phase. Like director, cameraman and designer,

editor also has a direct impact on any programme production. The harmony and coordination between the

editor and the producer is very necessary as the editing can either polish or tarnish the finished product.

During the process of editing the synchronization and equation of both the producer and editor is very

important and it speeds up the pace or the work as well as it improves the programme quality.

The choice of editing either linear or non-linear solely depends on the producer, as s/he has to anticipate the

needs according to available technical facilities. Linear editing is in vogue now a day due to its variety of

effects, more options and provision of more audio and video layers to make a programme more colourful and

bright however linear editing is speedy and less time-consuming.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 36LESSON 15MIXING AND USES OF EFFECTS• Animations• Graphics• Windows• Brackets• Effectso Zoom outo Zoom ino Page turn overo Dip to blacko Fade ino Fade outo Dissolveo Cross fadeo Wipeo Swap• Colour tone• Title• End credits• Break• Bumpers• Scroll• Strips• Superimpositionso Nameso Callerso Phone numbero Emailo Website• Promo• Recap• Musico Fore groundo Mid groundo Background• Choice of music• Sound leveling

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 37LESSON 16SELECTION OF THE NEWS

What is News?News is some thing or matter new, fresh, unusual, unique, strange and exclusive.

It may be defined as accurate fact or idea that will interest a large number of viewers. In news strangeness,

abnormality, unexpectedness and nearness of and event, all add to interest in the news story.

The American College Dictionary defines news as “A report of any recent event or situation and as the report

of event published in a newspaper”

According to Lord Northcliffe’ “if a dog bites a man it is no news but if a man bites a dog it’s news.

News is in fact a communication between human beings from the earliest period of human civilization.

News is information about an event, some development plan, and movement of important persons as it is

said, “big names make big news.”Qualities of NewsAccurate

Balanced

Truthful

Recent

Exact

Perfect

Objective

Impartial

Unbiased

Disinclined

Concise

Short

Brief

To the point

ClearElements of NewsTimeliness/Immediacy

Proximity

Consequence

Prominence

Suspense

Mystery

Oddity

Conflict

Progress

Action

Interest

Human Emotions

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 38LESSON 17WRITING OF THE NEWSNews is very important thing in today’s media scenario and there are a numbers of factors to modify

the importance of news in actual practice.• The policy of news medium may increase or diminish the importance of the story.• The class of viewers and listeners that dominates the audience of a channel determines largely what is

news for that medium.• The amount of time available on television determines whether is told briefly or in detail and thus

time alters the value of a news story.• Repeating the same news also sometimes decreases the importance of a news story.How to Write the News?The news story is totally and radically different from all other kinds of composition. A narrative, a short story,

a novel, a play, a drama, book, or a film script begins with a description of the background or with the

introduction of various characters and conditions. The story ends soon after the climax is reached. On the

contrary, a standard news story starts with the climax and leaves the details for the closing sentence.

The story in all other cases opens gradually and major information is given in middle of a story while in news

it opens with a bang all concrete things are mentioned at start and then the relevant detail is described.The Inverted PyramidThe pyramid or the upright triangle is the style of fiction or literary writing where as the news follows the

inverse triangle or inverted pyramid style.

Contents of News What?	What happened? What is the event?
When?	When it occurred, at what time it took place?
Where?	The place, where the incident occurred.
Who?	The persons involved at that occasion.
Why?	The reason of that particular issue.
How?	The sequence of the event.

LeadIt is the heading of the news that contains the above-mentioned five Ws and one H.IntroIt means the introduction and it is first and the foremost part of the news as it contains the gist of whole

news. Many features and essay have also the intro.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 39Credit LineCredit line is the thing mentioned in the start of news that’s the place of news with its source from where it

has been obtained.Body TextIntro is followed by the body text that contains the details of a particular story.Types of News According to Contents• News based on facts• News based on statement• News based on actionNews Based on FactsThe structure of the news based on fact will be as follows;• Leading fact• Secondary fact• Other fact

In the lead the most important facts or the climax of the story is given and as the story proceeds further facts,

secondary or subsequent information is revealed. Such kind of story is not very difficult to write. The

important thing is to judge the relative value of data and fact available and to arrange them in order of their

importance. The composition breaks logically at every paragraph and can easily be cut down or lengthened as

according to time available.News Based on StatementThe statement or the quote of some prominent personality is also taken a s a news as in our country there is a

lot of statement journalism.The structure of such news will be as follows;• Lead summary of the statement• Summary of less important part• Summary of even lesser important part

These include speeches, views; interviews talks, comments and opinions based on recorded information

delivered either in written form or verbally told to the news reporters.News Based on StatementThe action news is quite difficult to write as compared to rest of two types of the stories. The reporter only

narrated the action but he has to keep in mind the dramatic incidents, description of persons involved in that

action, statements of eyewitnesses and explanatory data as well. After the lead is written and important events

are given in chronological order, important information, background and detail is provided.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 40Finding out the LeadA reporter while writing a news story of any kind is constantly in search of a fact or a combination that will

be suitable for a lead. After all the fact and information the reporter faces the task of converting them to in to

a brisk beginning. In most of the news stories, the most important act or information is given in the opening

paragraph, which is lead and for lead usually “answer the five Ws technique” is followed.

The lead should be clear, provocative and simple, as one can easily understand it. Usually it should be with a

name, a noun, or an article, rarely with a participle, proposition or complete passage.ExampleThree persons (who) killed and nine injured last night (when) as a speeding truck (what) collided (why) with

a coach while overtaking another bus (how) at GT road (where).

The television newsroom is more complicated than that of radio or a paper’s newsroom as television

newsroom has editing equipment and production experts and other technical apparatus.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 41LESSON 18EDITING OF THE NEWSThe word edit is synonymous to prepare, correct, tidy up, check over, revise, amend, change, alter, modify,

adjust, transform and this all is done while editing any written item as well as the news.

The editing desk of a news channel is the hub and center around which all activities of news production

revolve and upon which news team ultimately concentrate.

The gathering of news is an interesting and peculiar job and for this purposes a large crew is engaged in every

quarter of the world, reporting to their principal news stories, momentous, interesting dull, sad and funny.

News is a short-lived and ephemeral commodity, yet it is regarded as essential to civilization and in the

making of that commodity a sub-editor plays an important role in shaping it in to form, attractive and

pleasant.

Media has no control over the events taking place all around, but they have to present the sum total of the

day’s happening in a digestible form. Great occurrences are few and far between and minor happenings are

more numerous.

A particular day may be full with great events or even one event may overwhelm all other happenings. The

next day may be very insignificant from the news point of view but the sub-editor has to produce the bulletin

and has to make it as interesting as possible to the large number of people who listen and watch it.

Although the sub-editor cannot determine the nature or the quality of the material gathered of the day but

one can control the use of news. S/he has to choose enough for filing the time of different news bulletins.

Keeping that limitation in view, the sub-editor can pick, choose and reject the news but it cannot be arbitrary

or random.

Throughout the whole process of selection, he has to take care of the policy of the news channel. The quality

of resultant production depends on wisdom, the judgment and the skill of group of sub-editors producing the

news bulletin.

The reporters exercise an initial discrimination in the selection of the news and in shaping it according to the

policy and time available with a news channel, but it is in the newsroom where it is finally dressed for bulletin.

It is here that the news is polished and improved and errors that creep in reporter’s copy are corrected. It is in

the newsroom that the news takes a new form.

Thus the sub-editor has to be ever vigilant. Competent handling of the copy is essential to every news

channel and an inefficient sub-editor can nullify the efforts of a best reporter and a very efficient direction of

the superior staff. While efficient and experienced sub-editors can correct the errors of the reporting staff if

any and can recover the indifferent and loosely worded copy.

Since the sub-editor has the last word in the production of the news bulletin, their inefficiency, lack of

knowledge and failures mar the finished product. For these particular reasons they have to be careful,

intelligent, knowledge able, alert and skilled.

The sub-editing of a news, the cutting of the news according to time available on any given day, the

formation of suitable headlines, and arrangement of news bulletins require a very high grade of news sense,

but also a sound education, a lot of general knowledge and a long practice of news making, competence in

international affairs, and a sense of balance and proportion are the attributes of a good sub-editor.Editing the news1. The first essential of news editing is accuracy.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 422. Every news producer and sub-editor should remember the channel’s reputation for fairness and

reliability rests upon an accurate presentation of facts.

3. A sub-editor has to keep in mind the number and class of people who would be interested in these

news as well as need for telecasting them while they still have news value.

4. The geographical nearness of an event does at to the interest for the viewers.

5. The viewers have interest in all sorts of contests and conflicts.Characteristics of good news1. It is the briefest possible summary of a story.

2. It includes five Ws and H that are important.

3. It should consist of one paragraph preferably but it often has more than one paragraphs.

4. It has all the main points of the story.

5. It quickly summarizes the most important fact of the story in first few words.

6. It begins with specific interesting and affecting words.

7. It is distributed in small sentences when too much information would make an excessive long

sentence.

8. It cites the source from where the news is generated.

9. It identifies the persons mentioned.

10. It relates to previous news if it is a follow-up story.Process of editing newsThe process of editing is intended t make it easier for the newscaster to read the copy. Corrections must be

indicated clearly and matter inserted written legibly. All letters should be written carefully.

The sub-editor first reads the story to get the general sense. He may mark a mistake here and there in first

reading but he reserves his efforts mostly for the second reading. He should read it again for the third time to

eliminate the possibility of over sight and to see that he story reads coherent. Then he gives the headline.

An experienced editor may edit he news story in first reading but it is recommended that a story should be

read once again after marking out the mistakes and corrections.

Reporters should be instructed to end each page of copy on a complete paragraph. It makes for good speed

in the composing room and eliminates the need of cutting the story into parts in the composing room as each

page may be given to different compositor.

If the writer has not observed this rule, the sub-editor should rewrite the copy to make each page a complete

unit.

Editing the news copy, which in journalistic term is called “Subbing”, is a progressively becoming more

important as the speed of news coverage increases and the news horizon broadens.

The sub-editor can make a first rate newspaper out of a third rate copy. On the other hand a poor sub-editor

can spoil the work of the best reporter. It is he who reconstructs and reduces the news to its proportional

time.

The different sub-editors on the desk also specialize in different sort of news but quite often they have to

handle all type of news coming to the news channel.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 43LESSON 19COMPILATION OF NEWS BULLETINThe recent past has witnessed an explosion in the number of news media serving the audience all

over the world. There are various television Channels, full time and all news networks, sports

channel, financial news channel, entertainment channel, historical channel, religious channel and

even weather channel.More news is available now than at any other time in human history. Obviously news is an important

commodity for all kind of public. Before anything becomes news, however, it must be reported, a rise in

gasoline prices, a city council meeting, a road accident, a political gathering, a protest rally, all must be filtered

through the eyes and ears of the a journalist.

A reporter must be aware of qualities that characterize a news story, the types of news that exist, and the

difference in the way the various media cover news.

From the million of things happen every day, print, broadcast, telecast and online journalist decide which few

things are worth reporting. Deciding what is newsworthy is not an exact science. News values are formed by

tradition, technology, organizational policy, and increasingly economics.

Nonetheless most of the journalists agree that there are some common elements that characterize

newsworthy events. In addition to five traditional elements of timeliness, proximity, prominence,

consequence and human interest of news value, economic plays a vital role now.

First, some stories cost more to cover than others. It is cheaper to send a reporter with a camera crew to city

council meeting than to assign a team of reporters to investigate city council’s corruption. Some news

operations might not be willing to pay the price for such story.

Conversely after spending a large some of money pursuing in a story, the news channel might run it, even if it

had little traditional news value, simply to justify its cost to the management.

By the same token, the cost of new technology is reflected in the types of stories that are covered. When TV

stations went to Electronic News Gathering (ENG) stories that could be covered live became more

important.

In fact, many organizations, conscious of scheduling of TV news programmes, plan their meetings and

demonstrations during the newscast to enhance their chance of receiving TV coverage.Compiling a News BulletinWhile compiling a news bulletin, generally news can been broken into three broad categories:• Hard News• Soft News• Investigative Report

Hard NewsHard news stories make up the bulk of news reporting. They typically embody the traditional news values.

Hard news consists of basic fact. It is the news of important public events, such as government actions,

international happenings, social conditions, the economy, crime, environment and science.

Hard news has significance for the large number of people. The front sections of a newspaper, or magazine

and the lead stories of a radio or television newscast usually are filled with hard news.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 44In the broadcast media, with the added considerations of limited time, sound and video, telecast reporting

follows a square format. The information level stays about the same throughout the story. There is usually no

time for less important facts that would come in the last paragraph of a newspaper story.

TV and radio news stories are either a hard or a soft lead. A hard news contains the most important

information, the basic fact of the story. Where as a soft lead is used to get the viewers attention, it may not

convey much information.

The lead then supported by the body of the story, which introduces new information and it amplifies the lead.

The summations, the final few sentences in the report can be used to personalize the main point, introduce

another fact, or discuss future developments.

The broadcast or news telecast is totally different from that of print news: it is more informal, conversational,

and simple. In addition it is designed to complement sound bites that is the voice of newsmaker or videotape

segment.Soft NewsSoft news or feature covers a wide territory. The one thing all soft news has in common Is that it interest the

audience. Features typically rely on human interest for the news value. They appeal to people’s curiosity,

sympathy, skepticism, disbelief, or amazement. They can be about places, people, animals, topics, events, or

products. Some stories that would be classified as soft news are the birth of kangaroo at local zoo, a

personality sketch of a local resident who have a small part in the upcoming movie, a cook who works a s a

stand-up comedian, a teenager gets a tax refund cheques.

Features are entertaining and the audience likes them. Many television and print vehicles are based primarily

on the soft content.

TV features are more common than radio features. In some large TV markets one or more reporter covers

nothing but features. Almost all stations have feature file where story ideas are catalogued. If a local TV

station does not have the resource to produce local features, it can look to syndication companies that

provide the general interest features for a subscription fee.

Telecast features also use a variety of formats. Humorous leads and delaying the main points until the end

sometimes work well, a technique often used in features. A simple narrative structure, used in everyday

storytelling, can also be effective. The interview format is also popular; particularly when the feature is about

a well-known personality.Investigative ReportThese reports unearth significant about matters of the public importance through the use of non-routine

information gathering methods. Since the Watergate affair was uncovered by a pair of Washington newspaper

reporters investigative reporting has also been looked upon as primarily concerned with exposing corruption

in high places.

Investigative reports require a good deal of time and money. Because of these heavy investments, they are

generally longer than the typical telecast news item. Telecast investigative reports are usually packaged in

documentaries or in a 10-15 minutes segment of a news magazine programme.

In television and radio, the investigative reporters have less time to o explore background issues. Documents

and records are hard to portray on television, so less emphasis is placed on tem, instead the TV reporter must

come up with the interviews and other visual aspects that will illustrate the story. Moreover the length of a

TV report will sometimes dictate its form.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 45Speed is more important for news telecast than it is for the press. TV is almost always first with the news as a

newspaper has to wait for the next morning to give the latest news while a television channel has several news

bulletin in 24 hours. Therefore TV deadlines are more frequent than that of newspaper dead lines. The

modern TV reporter also uses camera for news item.

Television was introduced to the world about thirty-five years after the radio in 1945. At most of the places

the television developed as sister organization to the radio, therefore it has grown up as a sister operation to

radiomen. Television outclassed all other media of communication in effectiveness as it illustrated and is very

close to face-to-face communication, which is considered most suit able and effective mode of

communication.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 46LESSON 20PRESENTATION OF NEWS BULLETINThere are many types of news telecast and each one is presented in different manners and prepared

in different style. Probably the most elementary type of news telecast is one in which the television

reporters find it necessary to process news items, making them worthy watching and hearable than

readable.

Everyone experienced in the field of electronic media that there are newscasters and newsreaders,

who merely read a news bulletin, and the news anchors or the news commentator, who take the

news of the day, relate it to happening of the past and to those of probable future, and analyze its

significance.

The speaker, who puts a great deal of his personality into such presentation, gives this news telecast

in a less formal manner. The news that is presented by a commentator may be coloured by his/her

own attitude or by the policy of either his station or the sponsor, if the news telecast is sponsored.

The viewers are tuning in on a programme, anchors usually save their most important item for

second place unless their news is preceded by the lengthy announcements. An item of national or

international interest is considered most important.

The news-anchor attempts to tie up today’s story with the news of yesterday, forming sort of

‘continued story’ effect which shows how the events of the yesterday have led to those of today, and

how these events may effect the society and history in the future.

During the course of programme the news commentator includes some human-interest stories. It is

good practice to insert short, bright, and fast moving items between long news features. As the news

reporter or producer, the news anchor must have the sense of what will appeal the greatest number

of viewers:

Weather is subject of universal interest while financial statement will interest only a limited class.

The conversational news of the news anchor is not so immediate as that presented in the press news

report. Some news anchors speak extemporary from the notes, cleverly changing their pace and

pitch to conform to content of the items and to mark a change of subject.

There are news anchors who endeavour to their items together regardless of their relationship; to do

this sometimes results in monotony. The news anchor must not allow the news items to cause alarm

or anxiety for the safety of friends or relatives of the viewers.

The larger rather all the news channels maintain their own ticker service, which is used as the basis

for the manuscript prepared by the news producers.

The great problem of the news broadcaster is that his program is a daily feature and in many

instances may run as many as three or more times a day, rather on hourly basis as is being done

presently. To be able to find material and methods of presenting material is a problem.

Here in our electronic media mostly news producer, reporters and even anchors are formerly

newspaper or radio newsmen who have developed a good sense of news values. Many of the news

anchors have traveled extensively or acted as field reporters so that they have a background that is

helpful in presenting a news bulletin in impressive and interesting manner.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 47Undoubtedly the most important prerequisite for the presentation of any item to be telecast is that it

be news, and that it be either significant or have human appeal. The television news editor considers

whether the item will have mass appeal or whether it is unusual.

If the item is not of national, international or state interest the telecaster is concerned whether it

deals with the locale within the primary range of the television station. If the persons who are

involved are of particular importance, the item has news value.

Many TV stations and the sponsoring agencies require that their telecast combine information with

entertainment and consequently humorous and human-interest stories are mixed together and

interspersed between the more significant items or are used in the conclusion of the news telecast.

It is always better to avoid shocking and frightening, dreadful and horrible news item and stories like

court trials with unpleasant angles, particularly of gender, social evils, divorces except of famous

personalities, crime only outstanding cases and that to minimized, capital punishment, except that

which has resulted from trials which have been in the public eye.

This does not mean that all unpleasant cases and distasteful items are discarded; it does mean that as

far as possible the television reporter and producer avoids being alarmist. This is the result of the

television’s whole-family audience.

Furthermore, in presentation of news bulletin the news producer must take into consideration that

he may be held for defamation, libel or slander, blasphemy, immoral telecast, contempt of court of

sedition and select items to avoid any of such charges. The time of the day when the news is to be

telecast influences the selection and presentation of items. Cancer, reptiles, false teeth, are not the

topics for mealtime news telecast.

Of course accuracy is essential in the reports of news bulletins, as an inaccurate news item cannot be

killed as it can be in a newspaper.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 48LESSON 21MAKING SPECIAL BULLETINSIn today’s scenario as the electronic media have grown up a lot and it cater for all types of audience. Now a

day we have news bulletins for almost all kinds of viewers. There are general news bulletins, which include all

kind of news items for wide-ranging public. Then we have special news bulletins on specified news channels

as well.Trade/IndustrySuch kind of channels telecast news related to trade, business, buying and selling, stock exchange matters, rise

and fall of shares of different companies. The information is presented by scrolling on screen all the time.Commerce/BusinessThese channels update the specified audiences having interest in commerce, import and export issues.AgricultureIn our country that has a larger agricultural economy base, different channels prepare programmes and news

bulletins about farmers and peasants regarding seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, agro-medicines and

livestock.SportsSports is a topic of interest of all age groups of viewers and to cater this need all the news channels televise

the special programmes, have special news bulletins, live transmissions about the different tournaments and

competitions being held nationally and internationally.ShowbizThe matters regarding the activities of film, radio, theater and television artists, singers, actors, performers,

directors, is of prime interest to general public and they want to know about even their personal profiles so

the news channels also have portion for them in their news bulletins.FashionDue to the advancement in media people are more aware of fashions in and out, life styles in vogue, make up

techniques and methods of make over, so the news channels also address this type of community.MusicWe do have television channels locally and globally dedicated to music only and the whole daylong

transmissions on such channels have music charts, albums and numbers as well as gossips of singers.DramaThere are channels specified only to drama, sit-com, tragedy, comedy, Series, serial, soaps and these air the

relevant information.WeatherWeather is the topic of concern for every body to plan the day activities like traveling out station or doing

laundry at home so all the news channels have weather reports in their news bulletins but there is no specified

weather channel so far in our country.EducationalThese channels are education oriented and they aim at distant education for the people living in remote areas

or those not able to attend full-time courses. There are lectures on different subjects through distance

learning.Religious

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 49We do have couple of channels which target only a specified audience interested to know the religious

matters, answers to their queries and for the clarification of their doubts.HealthThe programmes regarding health, personal hygiene, the diseases and the treatments of different ailments are

of great public concern and channels keep the audience enlightened about these issues.ScientificThese news bulletins on news channels or even on entertainment channels are about latest discoveries,

inventions, scientific research and technological advancements.FoodOne can watch channels nationally and internationally also that air only the food programmes related to

preparation of different food items, recipes and ingredients, food travelogue and tastes of different areas.Documentary/ InvestigationThe documentary making is a difficult job that involves a lot of time and cost. We have few channels

specified for documentaries but all the channels do have documentaries in their transmissions. There are also

the programmes regarding the reasons of natural calamities and different accidents occurred.YouthYouth, although very important segment of the society is vital in national progress and prosperity but there

are only few programmes for their career counseling on channels.WomenThese programmes on channels focus home decoration, cooking, gardening guidelines, beauty tips and kids

upbringing.Making Your News More ComprehensiveThere are some instructions followed by the correspondents and reporters of news channels and these are

equally applicable to the writer of news copy as well.

Send some thing	don’t always “transmit” or “dispatch”
Call a person	don’t always “summon” them
Buy something	don’t always “purchase” it
Leave some place	don’t always “depart”
Act	don’t always “take action”
Will	not always “is going to”
Arrest or Seize	not always “take into custody”
Show	don’t always “display” or “exhibit”
Get	don’t always “obtain”
Need	don’t always “require”
See	don’t always “witness”
Can	not always “is able to”

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 50Help not always “aid” or “assist”Hurt not always “injured”Break not always “fracture”Build not always “construct”Meet Not always “convene”Doctor Not always “physician”

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 51LESSON 22TECHNICAL CODES, TERMINOLOGY, AND PRODUCTION GRAMMAR

TV ProductionTV production is the process of making a programme, from an initial story idea or commission through

scriptwriting, shooting, editing and finally distribution to an audience. Typically it involves a large number of

people and can take anywhere between a few months and several years to complete. Production takes place

all over the world in a huge range of economic, social and political contexts, using a variety of technologies

and techniques.Stages in TV Production

Pre-ProductionPreparation for the shoot, in which cast and crew are hired, locations are selected, and sets are built.ProductionThe raw elements for the finished film are recorded.Post-ProductionThe film is edited, sound effects, music and any computer effects are added, and the film is completed.CreativityCreativity (or creativeness) is a mental process involving the generation of new ideas or concepts, or new

associations between existing ideas or concepts.

From a scientific point of view, the products of creative thought (sometimes referred to as divergent thought)

are usually considered to have both originality and appropriateness. An alternative, more everyday conception

of creativity is that it is simply the act of making something new.IdeaIt is the plan of action, a general notion, conception, comprehension, construct, thing, formed in the mind,

directly conceived or intuited object of thought or something formed by mentally combining all its

characteristics or particulars.

An idea is an image, also concept or abstraction formed and existing in the mind. Human capability to

contemplate ideas is associated with the ability of reasoning, self-reflection, and the ability to acquire and

apply intellect.ConceptConcepts are expected to be useful in dealing with reality. Generally speaking, concepts are taken to be (a)

acquired dispositions to recognize perceived objects as being of this kind or of that ontological kind, and at

the same time (b) to understand what this kind or that kind of object is like, and consequently (c) to perceive

a number of perceived particulars as being the same in kind and to discriminate between them and other

sensible particulars that are different in kind.CastingThe process of talent hunt for any programme is casting. The casting director finds actors for the parts in the

script. This normally requires an audition by the actor. Lead actors are carefully chosen and are often based

on the actor's reputation or "star power.Research

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 52Research is constant navigation to know the truth.

Research is continuous effort to dig out facts.

Research is an endeavour to find something new.

Research is making new interpretation of existing knowledge.

Research is an addition to already present knowledge.Script/ScreenplayA screenplay or script is an outline, written by a screenwriter, for a film or television program. Screenplays

can be original works or adaptations from existing works such as novels. A screenplay differs from a script in

that it is more specifically targeted at the visual, narrative arts, such as film and television, whereas a script can

involve a sketch of "what happens" in a comic, an advertisement, a theatrical play and other creations.RehearsalThe actors rehearse their script and blocking with the director. The picture and sound crews then rehearse

with the actors. Finally, the action is shot with as many takes as the director wishes.CameramanOne or more camera operators who operate the television cameras, though in some instances these can also

be operated from Production Control Room using remote heads.FrameFrame is one of the many single photographic images in a motion pictureShotShot (film) is part of a film between two cuts.Television StudioA television studio is an installation in which television or video productions take place, either for live

television, for recording live to tape, or for the acquisition of raw footage for postproduction. The design of a

studio is similar to, and derived from, movie studios, with a few amendments for the special requirements of

television production. A professional television studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate

for noise and practicality reasons. These rooms are connected via intercom, and personnel will be divided

among these workplaces.Studio FloorThe studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded take place. A studio floor has

the following characteristics and installations:• Decoration and/or sets• Cameras on pedestals• Microphones• Lighting rigs and the associated controlling equipment.• Several video monitors for visual feedback from the production control room• A small public address system for communication• A glass window between PCR and studio floor for direct visual contact is usually desired, but not

always possibleWhile a production is in progress, the following people work in the studio floor.• The on-screen "talent" themselves, and any guests - the subjects of the show.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 53• A floor director, who has overall charge of the studio area, and who relays timing and other

information from the director.• One or more camera operators who operate the television cameras, though in some instances these

can also be operated from PCR using remote heads.

Possibly a teleprompter operator, especially if this is a news broadcast.Set DesignThe production designer creates the look and feel of the production sets and props working with the art

director to create these elements.

Set or Scenic design (also known as stage design, set design or production design) is the creation of theatrical

scenery. Scenic designers have traditionally come from a variety of artistic backgrounds, but nowadays,

generally speaking, they are trained professionals, often with M.F.A. degrees in theatre arts.LightThe lighting is rigged; the camera and sound recording equipment are set up. At the same time the actors are

wardrobe in their costumes and attend the hair and make-up departments.Survey for LocationThe location manager finds and manages the film locations. Most pictures are shot in the predictable

environment of a studio sound stage but occasionally outdoor sequences will call for filming on location.MicrophoneA microphone sometimes referred to as a mike or mic is an acoustic to electric transducer or sensor that

converts sound into an electrical signal.VideotapeVideotape is a means of recording images and sound onto magnetic tape as opposed to movie film. In

virtually all cases, a helical scan video head rotates against the moving tape to record the data in two

dimensions, because video signals have a very high bandwidth, and static heads would require extremely high

tape speeds. Video tape is used in both video tape recorders (VTRs or, more common, video cassette

recorders (VCRs) and video cameras. Tape is a linear method of storing information, and since nearly all

video recordings made nowadays are digital, it is expected to gradually lose importance as non-linear/random

access methods of storing digital video data are becoming more common.Camera Control UnitIt is technical director's station, with waveform monitors, vector scopes and the camera control units or

remote control panels for the camera control units (CCUs).Switcher/Vision MixerA vision mixer (also called video switcher, video mixer or production switcher) is a device used to select

between several different video sources and in some cases composite (mix) video sources together and add

special effects. This is similar to what a mixing console does for audio.PanelControl panel is a flat area containing controls and indicators and may be associated with the operation of any

machinery.Audio Mixing ConsoleAudio mixing console and other audio equipment such as effects devices, character generator creates the

majority of the names and full screen graphics that are inserted into the program and digital video effects

and/or still frame devices.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 54Production Control RoomThe production control room (also known as the 'gallery') is the place in a television studio in which the

composition of the outgoing program takes placeVideo Monitor WallA video monitor wall, with monitors for program, preview, videotape machines, cameras, graphics and other

video sources.Video Editing

Non-Linear Editing System, using computers with video editing softwareLinear Video Editing, using videotape

Video editing is the process of re-arranging or modifying segments of video to form another piece of video.

The goals of video editing are the same as in film editing — the removal of unwanted footage, the isolation of

desired footage, and the arrangement of footage in time to synthesize a new piece of footage.Non-Linear EditingNon-linear editing for film and television postproduction is a modern editing method which involves being

able to access any frame in a video clip with the same ease as any other. This method is similar in concept to

the "cut and glue" technique used in film editing from the beginning. However, when working with film, it is

a destructive process, as the actual film negative must be cut. Non-linear, non-destructive methods began to

appear with the introduction of digital video technology.

Video and audio data are first digitized to hard disks or other digital storage devices. The data is either

recorded directly to the storage device or is imported from another source. Once imported they can be edited

on a computer using any of a wide range of software. For a comprehensive list of available software, see List

of video editing software, whereas Comparison of video editing software gives more detail of features and

functionality.Video CameraA video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition, initially developed by the television

industry but now common in other applications as well. Video cameras are used primarily in two modes. The

first, characteristic of much early television, is what might be called a live broadcast, where the camera feeds

real time images directly to a screen for immediate observation; in addition to live television production, such

usage is characteristic of security, military/tactical, and industrial operations where surreptitious or remote

viewing is required. The second is to have the images recorded to a storage device for archiving or further

processing; videotape is traditional for this purpose, but optical disc media, hard disk, and flash memory are

all used as well. Recorded video is used not only in television and film production, but also surveillance and

monitoring tasks where unattended recording of a situation is required for later analysis.Electronic Field Production (EFP)Electronic field production (EFP) is a television industry term referring to television production which takes

place outside of a formal studio, in a practical location or special venue. Some typical applications of

electronic field production include awards shows, concerts, major newsmaker interviews, political

conventions and sporting events.

Electronic field production (EFP) places the emphasis on high-quality, multi-camera photography, advanced

graphics and sound.Electronic News GatheringENG is a broadcasting (usually television) industry acronym which stands for electronic news gathering. It

can mean anything from a lone reporter taking a single camcorder out to get a story to an entire television

crew taking a satellite truck on location to do a live report for a newscast. In its early days, the term ENG was

used by newsroom staff to differentiate between the NG (newsgathering) crews that collected TV news with

traditional film cameras and the new ENG crews who collected TV news with new electronic analogue tapes.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 55TeleprompterA teleprompter (also known as an autocue) is a display device that prompts the person speaking with an

electronic visual text of a speech or script. Using a teleprompter is similar to the practice of using cue cards.

The screen is in front of the lens of the camera, and the words on the screen are reflected to the eyes of the

speaker using a one-way mirror.

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 56LESSON 23TYPES OF TV PRODUCTIONTelevision is known as the strongest of all the media and in present time it has become a central part of world

culture. The home entertainment centre, the campaign of advertisers, training and information dissemination,

politics, sports; religion or social activities, all are the focus of television today.

This powerful medium requires a team of aesthetically sensitive and technically skilled individuals to

communicate ideas and emotions to a particular audience. Television brings together a great art to produce

the programmes.• The scriptwriter’s command of dialogue• The researcher’s in-depth knowledge• The actor’s power of oratory• The performer’s suitable expression,• The makeup artist’s subtle touch• The lighting directors controlled shadows,• The set designer’s environmental influence,• The cameraman’s reflections,• The audio engineer’s skill in blending music,• The mixing expert’s sound effects,• The editor’s presentational talent,• The producer’s command and controlMagazine ShowsTalk show

Music show

Celebrity show

Health show

Road show

Game show

Quiz show

Fashion show

Cooking show

Beauty show

Reality showSpecific Audience ProgrammingReligious programmes

Women programmes

Children programmes

Sports programmes

News programmes

Current affairs programmes

Commerce, trade and industry programmes

Agricultural programmes

Views and comments programmes

Analytical programmes

Opinion formation programmes

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 57LESSON 24DRAMA AND DOCUMENTARY

DramaIs the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. It is derived from a Greek word meaning "action”

or "to do".

Dramas are performed in various media: theatre, radio, film, and television. Drama is often combined with

music and dance: the drama in opera is sung throughout; musicals include spoken dialogue and songs; and

some forms of drama have regular musical accompaniment like melodrama.

In certain periods of history (the ancient Roman and modern Romantic) dramas have been written to be read

rather than performed. In improvisation, the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance;

performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.Documentary film is a broad category of visual expression that is based on the attempt, in one fashion or

another, to "document" reality. Although "documentary film" originally referred to movies shot on film stock,

it has subsequently expanded to include video and digital productions that can be either direct-to-video or

made for a television series. Documentary, as it applies here, works to identify a "filmmaking practice, a

cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception" that is continually evolving and is without clear

boundaries.Defining DocumentaryThe word "documentary" was first applied to films of this nature in a review of Robert Flaherty's film Moana

(1926), published in the New York Sun on 8 February 1926 and written by "The Moviegoer", a pen name for

documentarian John Grierson.

In the 1930s, Grierson further argued in his essay First Principles of Documentary that Moana had

"documentary value". Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life

could be exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their

fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can be

more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's views align with Vertov's contempt for dramatic

fiction as "bourgeois excess," though with considerably more subtlety. Grierson's definition of documentary

as "creative treatment of actuality" has gained some acceptance, though it presents philosophical questions

about documentaries containing stagings and reenactments.Drama• Drama serial• Drama series• Soap serial• Mini-serial• Sit-com situational comedy• Long play• Tele-film• Short filmDocumentary• Historical• Informative• Investigative• Docu-dramaGenre• Comedy

TV News Reporting and Production – MCM 516 VU

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 58• Tragedy• Action• Thriller• Adventurous• Romantic• Fiction• Historical• Epic• Fiction• Science fiction• Fantasy• Suspenseful story• Murder mystery• Adventure movie• Crime novel• Detective story• Spy story